Article citation information:
Melnyk, O., Onyshchenko, S., Onishchenko, O. Development
measures to enhance the ecological safety of ships and
reduce operational pollution to the environment. Scientific Journal of Silesian University of Technology. Series
Transport. 2023, 118, 195-206.
ISSN: 0209-3324. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20858/sjsutst.2023.118.13.
Oleksiy MELNYK[1], Svitlana ONYSHCHENKO[2], Oleg ONISHCHENKO[3]
DEVELOPMENT MEASURES TO ENHANCE THE ECOLOGICAL SAFETY OF SHIPS AND
REDUCE OPERATIONAL POLLUTION TO THE ENVIRONMENT
Summary. Reduction of
ecological risks of shipping is a challenging task that requires methods of
legislative and regulatory control, organizational measures, and technical and
technological support. Furthermore, the matter concerns not only the reduction
of possible risks but also the level of existing impact on the marine
environment because of exhaust gas emissions by ships, discharge of waste and ballast
water, as well as control of ecological consequences of accidents. The purpose
of this study is to analyse possible sources of environmental impact during
ship operation cycles, identify significant risks, review existing potentials
to reduce the risk of ship accidents and their environmental consequences, and
develop solutions to existing problems. This study offers results, which can
serve as the initial basis for the formation of comprehensive measures on the
reduction of environmental risks, and consequences of possible accidents for
the environment caused by ships and international shipping.
Keywords: environmental
safety, freight transportation, pollution prevention, ship operation cycle,
safety of marine ecosystems, MARPOL, air pollution, water pollution, shipping
management
1. INTRODUCTION
Environmental pollution is not only dangerous
because of harmful substances entering the clean air and the marine ecosystem
that are destructive to living organisms but also because of global changes in
the climate caused by pollutants. Pollution from
commercial activities has increased carbon dioxide concentrations by almost 30%
over the last century. However, despite this, humanity continues to burn
fossil fuels and destroy forests, which is indicative of the scale of these
processes and steadily leads to global environmental problems.
The central environmental problem
for the world's ocean ecosystem continues to be pollution from merchant ships
or as a result of ship operations conducted on them. In addition, other
aspects related to marine commercial activities can also be considered sources
of pollution, the main ones being direct emissions of pollutants into the
ocean, for example, oil products during transportation, direct access of
pollutants during various shelf development and extraction of mineral resources.
One major environmental problem arising from the
pollution of the seas and oceans is the impact of oil and petroleum products on
marine organisms. In addition to that, there are
various kinds of effluents, both river and direct runoffs from the land, such
as terrigenous runoff, as well as emergency discharges from ships or underwater
pipelines. Another serious global issue being
experienced by humanity today is the problem of atmospheric air pollution [1,
2].
Environmental effects of marine transportation
[3] are increasing as various cargoes are being carried by water transport.
Ways to reduce the risk of ship collisions with marine organisms were studied
in [4]. Issues referring to oil refineries and water
pollution in the context of sustainable development, modeling spatial
dispersion of contaminants from shipping lanes and impact of maritime oil
pollution in the marine environment, development of a mixed-source, single
pesticide database for use in ecological risk assessment: quality control and
data standardization practices in sources [5-8]. Marine
pollution problems caused by the operation of ships, prohibition of pollution
of marine environments: emerging issues, challenges and prospects in [9-11].
Features of implementation of new requirements for the environmental safety of
ships and offshore installations were studied in [12, 13]. Progress report on
addressing impacts of underwater noise and marine debris on marine and coastal
biodiversity in [14] and ship’s ballast water pollution problems in [15].
Papers [16-20] were devoted to the influence of
shipping accidents on the marine environment, environmental pollution by ships
and environmental hazards methodologies for risk assessment and management. Development of a
set of organizational measures to prevent operational pollution and measures to
lessen and reverse the potential modal shifts due to environmental legislation
to pollution were examined in [21-23]. Prevention
pollution overview and technical and operational measures to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions and improve the environmental and energy efficiency of ships were
reviewed in [24-27]. Economic and legal impact of sulfur limit under Annex
VI, MARPOL convention and the impact of the global sulfur cap on maritime CO2
emissions were examined in papers [28, 29]. Works [30-33]
were devoted to marine pollution by microplastics and its ubiquitous ingestion in marine
turtles, waste abatement campaigns and government policies aimed at reducing
plastic waste and plastic pollution challenges in marine and coastal
environments.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
In recent
years, given the growing urgency of problems associated with marine pollution,
the development of both organizational and technical measures aimed at
preventing operational pollution of the environment during ships’
operation on maritime and inland waterways is carried out at an intensive pace.
Prevention of
operational pollution of the environment from water transport activity is known
to be regulated by many conventions, legal acts and requirements, which provide
strategic approaches to the prevention of operational pollution from ships.
They are based both on the use of shipboard technical means on the main power
plants for sewage and oily water treatment and the use of onshore technical
means. In combination, these means include a wide set
of technical measures ensuring pollution prevention in an integrated way, which
is more effective and expedient under conditions of ships’ operation at
sea. In practice, it is proved that a complex of
organizational actions whose basic purpose is substantiation and choice of
strategy of prevention of pollution of a sea ecosystem at the operation of
ships provide the application of modern technical means on board the ships. While
solving the problem of protecting maritime and inland waterways from pollution
by ships, considering various conditions of nature protection arrangements
during ship operation. The main possible ways to achieve these
objectives are determined by the requirements for drainage of cleaned ship
pollutants, the economic, production and intellectual capacities of shipping
companies and fleet operators, as well as the navigational and climatic
conditions during ship operation.
The role of motivational aspects of ship crew activities in solving
problems of pollution prevention of marine ecosystem during ship operation is
equally important as well.
Environmental impacts resulting from
international shipping include air pollution, water pollution, acoustic
pollution, and oil pollution. Pollution of the marine
environment is the most significant and includes, in addition to water
pollution, pollution in the form of marine sediments that cause damage to the
marine ecosystems; caused by the release of harmful substances, regardless of
their nature or quantity. The main pollutants of the marine environment are
shown in Figure 1.
The International Convention for the Prevention of
Pollution from Ships, MARPOL 73/78 (MARPOL), provides a set of measures to
prevent operational and accidental marine pollution from ships by oil; liquid
substances carried in bulk; harmful substances carried in packaging; sewage;
garbage; and air pollution from ships. It consists of articles introducing terms,
definitions, obligations and sanctions, as well as protocols and six annexes. The Protocols lay
down general provisions on the obligations of participating states to prevent
marine pollution from ships. The Annexes introduce Regulations concerning
marine pollution by specific pollutants: oil, noxious chemicals carried in
bulk, substances carried in packaged form, sewage, garbage and air pollution from ships (Figure 2).
A ship, as a source
of environmental pollution, impacts through several channels at once. These include pollution of the biosphere by
wastes generated in the course of operational activities; accidents during
which toxic cargoes are released (mostly oil and petroleum products);
greenhouse gas emissions; noise pollution; and as a result of shipwrecking,
sinking or recycling. The main ways in
which ship pollution occurs have been identified as follows: ballast water
discharge, acoustic pollution, collision with mammals, atmospheric pollution,
hydrosphere pollution, oily water discharge, operational waste discharge, and
garbage discharge (Figure 2).
Fig. 1. Main pollutants of the
marine environment
Fig. 2. The MARPOL-73/78 convention
structure
The
discharge of ballast water by ships negatively affects the aquatic environment.
Ballast water and sediment discharges by ships
worldwide are regulated under the International Convention for the Control and
Management of Ships' Ballast Water and Sediments, 2004 (BWM Convention), which
came into force on September 8, 2017. It contains
measures for the containment of organisms that cause problematic environmental
effects outside their natural range.
Some of the most undesirable species among these
organisms are cholera vibrio (various strains), cladocera, Chinese moss crab, and toxic algae. These aquatic organisms are of animal or plant origin, as well
as viruses and bacteria that are harmful to the natural inhabitants of other
natural areas. The damage caused by them to the environment, fisheries,
aquaculture farms, and other areas of activity is very significant and can even
cause infections.
Fig. 3. Main sources of pollution from ship operations
Noise
or acoustic pollution of the marine environment occurs due to human activities
and commercial shipping, seismic surveys, oil exploration, and the use of
military sonar. All of these types of noise pose a
serious threat to marine life. This noise pollution
affects a wide range of marine species, not just whales and dolphins. In 2012, the IMO adopted a provision in the International
Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) with the mandate that ships be
built with reduced noise levels on board and that the personnel be protected
from noise following the Code on noise levels on board ships. Noise
intensity causes psychological stress or physiological disturbances in both
humans and marine dwellers. Increased noise levels in
the oceans are a threat to marine life and seaweeds that use sound to
communicate and search for food. In 2014, the IMO
Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) approved guidelines to reduce
underwater noise from commercial shipping to deal with its harmful impacts on
marine life.
Collisions of marine mammals with ships or strikes against ships can
result in death or serious injuries to marine mammals, such as large wounds,
blood loss, broken bones, and propeller wounds. Marine mammals, such as whales
and manatees, are at risk of colliding with ships, resulting in the animals'
deaths. The purpose of the MEPC.1/Circ.674 IMO Circular
is to guide member governments on reducing and minimizing the risk of ship
strikes against cetaceans. Collisions with ships are among the leading
causes of cetacean and dolphin mortality in the oceans and seas.
Air pollution from ships is produced by power plants that burn fuels
containing high levels of sulfur, sulfur
dioxide, nitrogen oxide and particulates, as well as carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide and hydrocarbons. Exhaust was classified by the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as a probable human carcinogen in 1997,
and the IMO added a new annex (Annex VI) to MARPOL on air pollution from ships
that address air pollution from sulfur
and other hazardous waste such as nitrogen oxides and particulates. In
2011, IMO became the first international transport regulator to adopt global
mandatory energy efficiency requirements: these cover all ships, regardless of
trade pattern or flag state, aiming to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from
ships engaged in international shipping.
The main pollutants of the hydrosphere during ship operations are oil
and petroleum products. Oil spills have devastating consequences. Polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (components of crude oil), which are very toxic to the
aquatic environment, are very difficult to remove and remain in the water for
many years. Hydrobionts continuously exposed to
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons experience developmental problems, disease and
abnormal reproductive cycles. The International
Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Ships of 1973, as
modified and amended by the Protocol of 1978, is formally called MARPOL 73/78
Annex 2. Oil
pollution disrupts many natural processes and interrelationships, significantly
changes the conditions of all kinds of living organisms and accumulates in
biomass. Oil is a product of long-term decay, which
very quickly covers the surface of waters with a dense layer of oil film,
preventing access to air and light, and causing long-term damage to the life
activity of organisms living in the coastal zone; on the bottom or the surface.
It is a threat to the living conditions and habitats of
birds, mammals, fish and plants. Consequently, fisheries, hotels and restaurants suffer
huge losses from oil issues alongside other sectors of the economy, especially
those businesses whose operations require large quantities of water. If an oil
spill occurs in a freshwater reservoir, the local population (municipal water
treatment services) and agriculture will be negatively affected.
The discharge of untreated or inadequately treated
bilge water and sewage, as well as the discharge of wastewater that may contain
harmful bacteria, pathogens, viruses, intestinal parasites and harmful
nutrients, and the discharge of solid waste generated by vessels pose dangerous
threats to the marine ecosystem. Discharges of untreated or
inadequately treated sewage can lead to bacterial and viral contamination of hydrobionts. Nutrients in
wastewater, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, contribute to excessive algal
blooms that consume significant amounts of oxygen from the water, resulting in
fish death.
The
discharge of unfiltered bilge water, destructive to the ecosystem, is strictly
prohibited because the substances they contain not only harm the microorganisms
that the larger animals feed on but also enter the food chain through mussels
and fish, causing harm to humans.
All types of garbage and operational waste, excluding
solid residues containing oil and petroleum products and other substances
harmful to human health or marine living resources, which are generated during
the operation of ships and shore facilities and formed as a result of various
industrial and repair works on the ship or in the port, regulated by MARPOL
Annex V - Regulations for Prevention of Pollution by Garbage from Ships, are
potential sources of dangerous human and animal diseases. Wet hides of animals, wool and livestock transported onboard
ships are considered the most dangerous. This kind of garbage is buoyant and
breaks down in the natural environment for a long time, clogging up the water
space. Also, the remains of nets, for example, wind up
on the blades of propellers, causing shipwrecks. Furthermore,
the damage from plastic is much worse than climate change and loss of
biodiversity; hence to solve the problem of marine debris, the entire process,
from the production of plastic to its uses and disposal, needs to be rethought.
3. RESULTS AND
DISCUSSION
The environmental hazards of ships are represented by two components -
operational and emergency. It is difficult to assume which of them is the most
dangerous, as well as their degree and level of danger to the environment.
Pollution arising in the process of operation of ships and infrastructure
facilities such as ports, shipbuilding and ship-repair enterprises is formed
and discharged into the sea constantly, although in relatively small amounts. During accidental spills, large amounts of pollutants are discharged
at once; however, they are limited to the accident area and adjacent
territories. In case of an accidental discharge,
mass death of hydrobionts is observed, while in the case of
operational pollution, the aquatic ecosystem is chronically poisoned
(Figure 4).
Fig. 4. Ship's operation cycle regarding possible
pollution
Tab. 1
Organizational and technical
measures to prevent operational pollution from ships
|
Pollution risks |
Emergence
and causes of pollution |
Solutions offered |
|
Ballast water
discharge |
Violation of the requirements
for ballast water operations, procedures for ballast treatment and exchange,
and failure to comply with the required distance from the nearest shore. |
|
Acoustic
pollution |
High traffic density on shipping lanes and routes.
Ship traffic congestion in constricted waters, canals, and straits. Oil and gas fields, military
ships and exercises. |
The use of less noisy marine engines. Introduction
of stricter legislation on oil and gas seismic surveys and the use of hydroacoustic systems. |
|
Growing intensity of shipping, increasing speed and maneuvering characteristics of ships. |
Development
of cetacean behavior management methods based on
the integrated use of information, energy, and bioresonance
signals. |
|
|
No
equipment and systems for cleaning exhaust gases on board. Powerful engines
with huge fuel consumption; inexpensive fuel with high sulfur
content, which is a waste product of oil refining. |
Rejection of high-sulfur
fuel oil and conversion to higher-quality diesel fuel containing less sulfur. Equipping ships with scrubbers exhaust
gas-cleaning systems. Use of natural gas as an alternative fuel. |
|
|
pollution |
Failure
to comply with the bunkering procedure. Damage to the integrity of the vessel
hull and its subsequent depressurization due to unsatisfactory technical
conditions and/or mechanical damage, failure of the cargo system, damage to
control sensors, including gauges, closing valves, and overfilling of oil
storage tanks. |
Compliance with the technological
process of the operation, control of hull integrity, pipeline hermiticity and mechanical damage of flexible hoses,
connecting assemblies, and systems and couplings. Monitoring of sensors,
level gauges, shut-off valves, and the actual level of filling of tanks. |
|
Oily wastewater discharge |
Satellite monitoring and image
analysis. Functionality of the installation of a wastewater treatment system
(physic-chemical, electrochemical or biological type) Class approved. Proper
functioning of the system for shredding and disinfecting wastewater and
collection tanks with adequate storage capacity. |
|
|
Operational and solid waste |
Breach of requirements for the
collection, transportation, disposal and recycling of operational waste. Unauthorized dumping of waste that is buoyant. |
Special
waste must be delivered to special receiving ships with skin
and respiratory protection equipment. Strict prohibition of mixing
hazardous waste with solid garbage. Special waste should be stored in
separate containers provided by the port service. Use of equipment: Waste
collectors. Handling facilities. Waste treatment facilities. |
|
Breach of convention requirements, sanitary and
veterinary rules, waste collection, storage, treatment and disposal
technology. Inappropriate use of shipboard operating equipment for storage,
treatment and disposal of garbage. |
Incineration, collection and segregation. Use of
food waste grinders and waste compactors. |
4. CONCLUSION
Protection
of the marine environment, as well as the prevention of pollution during ship
operations, is a complex task, which is solved at many levels, starting from
the adoption and observance of the international conventions to the
implementation of these decisions on the spot by ship crews. Prevention of
marine ecosystems' pollution demands the implementation of advanced technology
solutions and the development of new approaches, including those for the
reduction of accident risks.
The task
of minimization of negative human-induced factors of impact on aquatic
ecosystems and reduction of ecological disaster risks must be solved by
creating modern transportation systems that are reliable and harmless to the
environment. The development of an efficient
environmental management system is necessary to prevent environmental pollution
in the process of ship operation and to ensure environmental safety in the long
term.
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Received 05.11.2022; accepted in
revised form 30.12.2022
Scientific Journal of Silesian University of Technology. Series
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[1] Department of Navigation and
Maritime Safety, Odesa National Maritime University, 34 Mechnikov
Street, 65029 Odesa, Ukraine. Email: m.onmu@ukr.net. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9228-8459
[2] Department of Fleet Operation and
Transport Technologies, Odesa National Maritime University, 34 Mechnikov Street, 65029 Odesa, Ukraine. Email:
onyshchenko@gmail.com. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7528-4939
[3] Department of Technical Fleet
Operation, National University “Odessa Maritime Academy”, 8 Didrikhson Street, 65029 Odessa, Ukraine. Email:
oleganaton@gmail.com. ORCID: https://orcid.org/ 0000-0002-3766-3188