Article citation information:
Onishchenko, O.,
Golikov, V., Melnyk, O., Onyshchenko, S., Obertiur, K. Technical and
operational measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and improve the
environmental and energy efficiency of ships. Scientific Journal of Silesian University of Technology. Series
Transport. 2022, 116, 223-235.
ISSN: 0209-3324. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20858/sjsutst.2022.116.14.
Oleg ONISHCHENKO[1],
Volodymyr GOLIKOV[2], Oleksiy
MELNYK[3],
Svitlana ONYSHCHENKO[4],
Kostiantyn OBERTIUR[5]
TECHNICAL AND OPERATIONAL MEASURES TO REDUCE GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS
AND IMPROVE THE ENVIRONMENTAL AND ENERGY EFFICIENCY OF SHIPS
Summary. Every year,
the dynamics of implementation of projects aimed at improving the efficiency of
energy use is gradually increasing at different levels and in different
industries. It has spread in the areas of design, modernization and
reconstruction of energy-efficient buildings and structures, design and
construction of elements of industrial infrastructure, and technological
production processes. Introduction of such projects is a priority for
enterprises and companies of various types of economic activity. Thus, the
leading industries develop strategies to improve environmental safety and
energy efficiency - shipping is no exception, where the process of improving
energy efficiency is carried out through various mechanisms, ultimately leading
to a reduction in emissions of pollutants, but having a negative impact on
the performance of the commercial operation of the ship. Problems of ensuring
energy efficiency along with increasing requirements for environmental safety
of transport and strengthening the responsibility of shipowners become the
focus of research of modern theory and practice of operation of means of
maritime transport. The issues of improvement of universal principles of energy
efficiency within individual shipping companies and development of tools for
economic analysis of energy efficiency of own fleet, search for new ways of
forming professional competencies of ship crew members in the field of energy
efficiency continue to be topical as well.
Keywords: ships
energy efficiency, design index, management plan
1. INTRODUCTION
Analogous to
SOLAS (International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea), which regulates
shipping according to the minimum standards to protect life at sea, MARPOL (The International
Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships) is another important
convention that protects the marine environment from pollution from ships.
MARPOL and SOLAS are considered two effective instruments of the IMO
(International Maritime Organization) in the field of safety and environmental
protection. Continuous technical development and innovation are the key areas
in the process of improving the energy efficiency of ships. For some time,
control over the efficient use of energy resources by ships has been
voluntarily, and shipowners were expected to be aware of their responsibility
for the energy efficiency of their fleet. However, due to growing concerns
about increasing greenhouse gas emissions and fuel consumption, several steps have
been taken by the IMO's maritime industry regulator MEPC (Marine Environment
Protection Committee) to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from ships, namely the
adoption of MARPOL Annex VI, Chapter 4, Ship Energy Efficiency Regulations. The
main objective has been to introduce two mandatory mechanisms - the Energy
Efficiency Design Index (EEDI) and the Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan
(SEEMP).
The problems
of ensuring energy efficiency along with the improvement of environmental
safety of ships have always been given close attention, both by leading
scientists in the field of water transport and international organizations and
institutions. Thus, features of the use of alternative types of fuel are
considered in works [1-3]. Means and methods of ship energy efficiency
management are investigated in [4-6]. The disclosure of the basic principles
and measures on increase energy efficiency on ships is offered in [7, 8].
Guidelines for considering innovative energy efficiency technologies for
calculation and verification of achieved performance for ships in adverse
weather conditions and regulatory requirements from controlling organizations
are presented in [9-11]. In [12-14, 18], the operational energy efficiency
performance of a ship based on the influence of the navigational environment
and the optimization of ship time in port are analyzed. In [15-17], works are
devoted to the study of the ship's performance under various operating
conditions. Chemical tracers of particulate emissions from commercial shipping
and new trends in environmental friendliness of ship power plants are reviewed
in [21, 24]. Papers and regulations on the implementation of the Energy
Efficiency Design Index [20, 23]. However, the search for ways to reduce
emissions of harmful substances from ships and the issues of improving the
energy efficiency of vessels through the implementation of various operational
methods, are characterized by a high degree of relevance.
2.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Today, the world community devotes special attention to the problem of
preventing pollution of atmospheric air. In 1997, the Kyoto Protocol was
adopted - an additional agreement to the framework, UN Convention on Climate
Change. The protocol establishes a procedure for reducing greenhouse gas emissions
into the atmosphere, mainly CO2. The governments of almost all
countries of the world are required to limit some human activities, such as the
burning of fossil fuels, which leads to the release of gases that affect the
climate into the atmosphere. The Paris Climate Conference (October-March 2015)
strengthened the standards for releases of toxic substances into the
atmosphere.
Maritime transport plays an important role in the pollution of the
environment. Currently, the global call for environmental protection in the
maritime transport community has been added to these circumstances concerning
the pollution of water resources and the atmosphere. The International Maritime
Organization (IMO) has confirmed this environmental concern by setting more
demanding requirements. To prevent air pollution from ships, MARPOL (1997)
Addendum VI prohibits disposal of ozone-depleting substances following the
Montreal Protocol; it also regulates the disposal of exhaust gases: NOx - 6-10
% reduction as compared to uncontrolled engines, SOx - allowed limit in
standard areas - 4.5%, and in emission control areas (SECA) - 1.5%.
The new edition of Supplement VI took shape beginning at the 53rd and
ending at the 59th sessions of the IMO Marine Environment Protection Committee
(MEPC), which came into effect on 1 June 2010. According to the new edition,
the amount of nitrogen (NOx) is divided into three levels: Level I represents
the interval of NOx at this time, which was adopted in the industry and
transport (this includes engines installed from 1990 to 1999 with cylinder
capacity up to 5000 kW and a cubic capacity of 90 liters); Level II - reduced
by 15.5 - 21.8% in comparison with Level I of the standard on the amount of NOx
for new engines installed on vessels built before June 1, 2010, or later; Level
III - reduced by 80% of Level II standard on the concentration of NOx for new
engines installed on vessels built before June 1, 2016, or later.
Regarding COX and particulate matter content of the exhaust
gases specified in Appendix VI, it should be noted that specific limits for
particulate matter content are not specified, as they depend on sulfur content
(S). On a global scale, the standard of limiting particulate matter content is
4.5% until June 1, 2012, 3.5% after that date, and 0.05% from June 1, 2020.
In the SECA areas (Figure 1) (Baltic and Black Sea (EECA), North America
(NAECA), etc.), the standard for the amount of Sulfur before June 1, 2015, is
1.0%, and 0.1% after that date.
To meet the established standards, it is planned to improve the exhaust
gas purification systems, in particular, recirculation systems, use of gas fuel
- after the adoption of the hourly Safety Manual for ships using gas as fuel
and other innovation projects and technology expertise by the Maritime Safety
Committee (MSC) of IMO at its 86th session. The rule, known as "IMO
2020," limits the sulfur content of fuel oil used aboard ships operating
outside designated emission control zones to 0.50% m/m (mass by weight) - a
significant reduction from the previous limit of 3.5%. In certain emission
control zones, the limits were already stricter (0.10%). This new limit became
mandatory after an amendment to Annex VI of The International Convention
for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL).
Fig. 1. Specific emission control areas
(EECA and NAECA)
The
reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from ships is regulated by Annex VI
(Revised) to the Convention "Regulations for the Prevention of Air
Pollution from Ships" and the IMO report of States Parties to the
"greenhouse gas" problem and strategies to reduce their emissions.
The first IMO report noted a small fraction (1.8%) of the world's total
greenhouse gas emissions from ships. Operational measures to reduce emissions
became the new rules for the construction of ships, compared to modernization,
which relates to the propulsion system: hull, engines, and propellers aimed at
reducing energy consumption. Emissions of CO2 from shipping for 2021
were up 4.9% from 2020 and higher than in 2019, citing data from Simpson Spence
Young (SSY), a U.K. company. The largest increase in CO2 emissions
was recorded in the LPG carriers segment. The main reasons were the delivery of
new ships and high demand. In the segment of bulk carriers and container
carriers, these factors added an increase in the route and congestion in the
ports. The global scale of emissions is as follows: electric power - 35%;
agriculture - 24%, industry (factories, plants, and construction) - 21%;
transport - 14%, residential sector - 6%; while water transport including
supply and fishing vessels - 3.3% (Figure 2).
Since
2007, CO2 emissions from ships began to increase by 17.5% and
reached 1,019 million tons. Another later IMO report on "greenhouse
gases” was considered at the 59th session of the Marine Environment
Protection Committee. It presented a projection of CO2 emissions
from ships from 2007 to 2050 with an expectation of about 2,500-3,000 million
tons per year by 2050. Marine transportation emits about 940 million tons of CO2
per year and is responsible for about 2.5% of global greenhouse gas emissions
(according to the 3rd IMO GHG study). These emissions are predicted to increase
significantly unless urgent action is taken to reduce them. According to the
3rd IMO GHG study, emissions from shipping could increase from 50% to 250% by
2050 under a "business as usual" scenario, undermining the goals of
the Paris Agreement. It was agreed that the reduction of the level of emissions
should be achieved by using market mechanisms in the form of the tax on fuel or
trade in quotas for emissions. Thus, this article studies approaches to improve
the environmental and energy efficiency of the ship on the example of the determination
of energy efficiency for particular types of merchant ships.
Fig. 2.
Global scale of emissions
2.1. Measures to improve environmental and energy performance of vessels
An
important economical measure to improve the energy efficiency of new ships is
the mandatory Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI), a complex formula which
can be applied to most types and sizes of ships:
EEDI =
The
coefficient should include CO2 emissions as a cost, and the benefits
should include cargo capacity and transport operations. Technical and
operational measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions include the Ship Energy
Efficiency Management Plan (SEEMP) for all ships (new and existing) and the
Energy Efficiency Operational Indicator (EEOI) similar to EEDI, the calculation
reflects the ratio of carbon emissions and useful work performed (transported
energy).
Ship
energy efficiency plan includes:
- Improved
voyage planning (guiding by the most advantageous routes, considering the weather,
operating conditions and economic running close to the schedule);
- Optimization
of speed, power, and main engine operation;
- Optimization
of ship management (ballast, use of steering gear and autopilot);
- Improved
fleet management;
- Improved
cargo operations;
- Management
of the ship's energy efficiency.
The
EEOI of a vessel (new and in service) establishes the relationship between fuel
consumption (tons), cargo quantity (tons), and the vessel's voyage route
(miles):
EEOI =
The
59th session of the Marine Environment Protection Committee decided:
- for
new ships, the interim Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI) Guidelines, as
well as the interim Voluntary Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI) Validation
Guidelines;
- for
all ships (new and existing) - guidelines for the preparation of the Ship
Energy Efficiency Plan (SEEMP), as well as guidelines for the voluntary use of
the Energy Efficiency Design Index for Ships (EEDI). MARPOL 73/78, Annex VI,
they have converted the ship engines from sulfurous fuel (HSFO) to low-sulfur
ship fuel (LSFO).
Expert
evaluation of sources, factors and elements of ship energy efficiency
improvement is presented in Table 1. The following are observed: higher fuel
prices, the need for investment to adapt the fuel system of engines, problems
of preserving engine life due to the deterioration of lubricating properties of
LSFO-fuel, as well as difficulties in bunkering ships due to the scarcity and
high cost of LSFO-fuel. Technologies for the purification of engine exhaust
gases from SOx have not been used because of their problematic nature.
Refrigeration and air conditioning equipment was changed from Freon R12 and R22
to Freon R404.
Tab. 1
Assessment
of the prospective emission reduction potential
|
Ship's life cycle |
Measures, Items |
Reduction of CO2
level, % |
Total, % |
Grand total, % |
|
Design, construction (new
ships) |
Concept, speed and power |
2 - 50 |
10 - 50 |
25 - 75 |
|
Hull and superstructure |
2 - 20 |
|||
|
Power and propulsion systems |
0.5 - 5 |
|||
|
Fuel with low S |
0.5 - 5 |
|||
|
Renewable power source |
1 - 10 |
|||
|
Reduction of CO2 in
exhaust gases |
0 |
|||
|
Operation (all ships) |
Fleet management, logistics and
stimulation |
5 - 50 |
10 - 50 |
|
|
Voyage optimization |
1 - 10 |
|||
|
Energy Efficiency
Management |
1 - 10 |
The main problem in
fulfilling these requirements arises with the reduction of SOx, which forces
ships to consume at least fuel, operating at reduced speeds, as well as
attempts to fully connect the ship to shore power sources. There is a shortage
of power and special transformers are required. There is an acute shortage of
"know-how" technologies for fuel preparation of shipboard heavy fuel
HFO. As an example, given the experience of using silicone paints for painting
ship hulls, which for a vessel of 25,000 tons deadweight costs about 300,000
euros. This coating requires the ship to be in running order all the time. Otherwise, the underwater part of the
ship quickly grows by algae (silt), and when docked, the hull must be exposed
to as little sunlight as possible to stimulate anti-fouling. When applying a
new silicone layer, the primary layer must always be removed, which is
technologically difficult and time-consuming. If the primary silicone layer
remains, the new layer simply will not adhere to the vessel's hull, as a result,
silicone coatings are economically efficient.
Mitsubishi Heavy
Industries Ltd in Japan developed a conceptual design of a Panamax class
container ship «MALS-14000CS», achieving a reduction of CO2
emissions by 35%. The ship is equipped with the Mitsubishi Air Lubrication
System (MALS) that directs air under the bottom of the hull, thus, by
decreasing water resistance, it reduced CO2 emissions by 10%
compared to existing types of ships. Additional reduction of CO2
emissions by 20% is achieved by changing the hull shape with the bridge located
in the aerodynamic bow, chimney in the stern, and containers stowed under the
living quarters in a newly designed high-performance low-resistance hull shape.
The use of an automated twin-screw propulsion system with two engines and a
waste heat recovery system reduces CO2 emissions by a further 5%.
The rest is made possible by the installation of exhaust energy recovery
turbochargers with an electric generator integrated on one axis, which can
operate in electric motor mode. Thus, from the ecological position, the use of
thermal power plants, as well as the entire transport industry, is an
inevitable problem, without which it is difficult to imagine modern
civilization; however, it requires a huge intellectual effort and new
approaches.
Further improvement
of environmental friendliness of cargo transportation is aimed at the reduction
of material and financial costs to the barest minimum. For ship power plants,
this means a maximum reduction of non-circulating energy and material flows
when a ship performs the mechanical work of changing the spatial location of
the transported goods. The main factors of non-reversibility are losses of
internal energy of a working body when generating mechanical energy and
mechanical friction losses in the ship's hydraulic propulsion complex.
2.2.
Implementation of Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI)
Energy Efficiency Design Index (hereinafter
referred to as - KКЕ(р)) during the inspection should not exceed the level of the boundary
allowable base value for a vessel of the same type.
This approach, due to the introduction of new technological links, will
allow the use of more economical engines, utilize waste heat, use alternative
energy sources, and increase tonnage and design speed due to the optimization
of ship hull shapes and propulsion system operation.
The KКЕ is calculated according to the general method set out by IMO in MEPC
62/24/Add.1, and then the ship is inspected by the maritime administration of
the country or its competent authority by the Registry of Shipping. After a
successful inspection, the ship is issued the International Certificate of
Energy Efficiency.
IMO Resolution MERS.203(62) is implemented in the design, construction
and operation of ships. This work studied the use of a set of actions and
methods of KКЕ calculations, namely:
- Implementation
of the MERC.1 Circ. 681 into the technical documentation;
- Use of
the KКЕ
calculation algorithm;
- Verification
of the reliability of the calculations.
The first task is to use the working model by transforming the
calculation formulas, tables and graphs into an analytical form, which is
carried out in the following order.
The maximum value of KКЕ (max) (on the baseline) is determined by a static empirical formula
depending on the ship type (for 2.25 -2.31 according to MARPOL) and its
deadweight:
where ai,
ci
- empirical dimensionless coefficients of the i-th ship type; i
= [
And,
To create the curve described by the equation (3), value Dw(j) changes from Dw(min) = 400 т to the maximum value Dw(max) for a given type of vessel, the magnitude and value of the deadweight
of the vessel in question Dw(c) with a step Δdw(f) equal to 0.02Dw(max).
Required index of energy efficiency design of the ship
Where
The value E is a piecewise
continuous function of three variables: ship type i = [
KКЕ(р), as a calculation indicator of greenhouse gas emission, is a ratio of the
mass of carbon dioxide (MCO2) in the gas exhausted by the ship's thermal engines to the work
performed by the ship to move the cargo, g
where CF
- the mass content of CO2
at complete combustion of carbon in the fuel (Table 2).
Tab. 2
Characteristics of
the fuels used by ships
|
№ |
Fuel type |
Grade |
Carbon dioxide, g/l |
CF |
|
1 |
Diesel/Gas Oil |
ISO 8217 |
0.87 |
3.21 |
|
2 |
Light Fuel Oil
(LFQ) |
ISO 8217 |
0.86 |
3.15 |
|
3 |
Heavy Fuel Oil
(HFO) |
ISO 8217 |
0.85 |
3.11 |
|
4 |
Liquefied Petroleum
Gas (LPG) |
Propane Butane |
0.82 – 0.83 |
3.00 – 3.03 |
|
5 |
Liquefied Natural
Gas (LNG) |
– |
0.75 |
2.75 |
Vref -
operational speed of the ship, knots;
Dw(i)(j) - for container ships is 65% of the deadweight of
the ship;
Р(x) - total
capacity of main engine (PME) and
auxiliary (PAE) engines, kW;
PME(i)
= 0.75MCRME(i) – PPS(i), (7)
Here PPS(i) - 0.75 part of
the output power of each installed halogen generator, divided by the efficiency
of the halogen generator, kW;
MCRME(i) - maximum continuous power of the i-th heat
engine, KW;
PPG(i) - 0.75 part of the nominal capacity
of each generator engine, divided by the average efficiency of the electric
generator, kW, (in case of joint operation of the shaft and electric generators PPS(i) + PPG(i), the following diagram should be considered in the
calculations);
Pmer(i) - 0.75 part of the
power of the main engine, reduced as a result of the introduction of innovative
energy-efficient technologies and mechanisms, kW;
РАЕr(i) - power of auxiliary engines reduced due to innovations in the
field of electric energy efficiency technology, kW;
РАЕ - The power of the auxiliary
engines required to maintain the continuous maximum running load, including the
necessary load for the propulsion system and common needs, but not including
the load for the propulsion system: steering equipment, pumps for cargo and
ballast transfer, as well as cargo handling equipment (operating refrigeration
systems and/or cargo hold fans) of a fully laden ship at high speed (Vref):
S(x) - engine specific fuel
consumption, g/kWh, for engines meeting the E2 or EU NOx test cycle of the 2008
Technical Code, specific fuel consumption; SME(i) recorded in the EIAPP (engine international air pollution certificate)
for 75% of the MCR engine capacity or torque ratings, for engines, to test
cycle category D2 or C1 under NOx Test Code 2008, the total fuel consumption
rate SAE(i) is recorded on the EIAPP
statement for 50% of the MCR capacity or on the torque gauge, for engines which
do not have an EIAPP certificate and have a capacity lower than 130 kW, the S
value is determined by the manufacturer and must be used by the competent authority
for the approval of the International Energy Performance Certificate;
fh - correction factor for certain vessel components (for ice-class vessels
this factor is selected from MEPC.1/Circ.681 ANNEX VI, but for all other types
of vessels it is taken as one if there are no additional components that
increase the resistance to motion);
fw - the rate-free coefficient, which indicates the reduction of the
ship's speed in rough and rolling conditions (to be determined by sea trials,
or by calculation, or taken as 1 before specification);
fr(i) - coefficient of availability of
each innovative energy-efficient technology, taken equal to 1 for heat recovery
systems;
fdw - coefficient of cargo capacity, for non-ice class ships is taken as 1.
Formula (6) is not applicable to
diesel-electric propulsion systems, turbo-propulsion systems and hybrid
propulsion systems because it requires additional clarifications and
approaches.
Formula (6) is illustrated below (Figure 3).
Fig 3. Components of ship power plants, which influence the energy
efficiency of a ship:
a - main engine; b - auxiliary engine; d - energy-saving technologies for
auxiliary units: c, d - energy-saving technologies for main units
In general, the Energy Efficiency Design Index is
directly proportional to the fuel consumption by the ship, the capacity, the
efficiency of the main and auxiliary engines, the methods of heat utilization,
the capacity of the shaft generator and its efficiency, as well as other
energy-saving design features and the proportional work of the vessel during
the period of cargo transportation.
Analysis of previous calculations of the energy
efficiency index made in some countries for different types and sizes of ships
showed the applicability of the IMO method. The calculations showed their
effectiveness for dry and container carriers with deadweight over 5000 tons,
tankers, gas carriers and refrigerator ships with deadweight over 2000 tons,
Ro-Ro ships with deadweight over 15000 tons and energy efficiency measures for
larger ships.
3. CONCLUSION
Finally, it should be noted that
the energy efficiency of maritime transport, in general, is higher compared to
other modes of transport, so will consistently grow incentives and regulations
aimed at improving the energy efficiency of ships. The analysis of the main
tools of energy efficiency management of the ship demonstrates the
implementation of effective ways to save energy on board ships through a
comprehensive assessment and prediction of efficiency and reducing the carbon
footprint in the environment. Regulatory requirements for energy efficiency
management raise industry standards for maritime transportation facilities,
hence improving measures aimed at improving the energy efficiency of ships
primarily due to the reduction of carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere,
among the top priorities. A separate place is occupied by the cost of
implementation of new and more effective technologies for the modernization of
existing ships to improve their environmental and economic performance, so the
listed measures require the development of better and more substantial means
and methods of energy efficiency.
Development of operative measures
to increase ship operation effectiveness is undoubtedly an extremely urgent
task requiring additional research and implementation of the latest
technologies, one of which can be the use of integrated decision support
systems aimed at the reduction of both fuel consumption and hazardous
substance emissions. Presently, a set of technologies for improving the energy
efficiency of ships has already been developed and successfully implemented.
The focus is on the ship hull design, power regeneration, fuel quality and
consumption levels, and shipboard operational measures but these means and
operational methods still require to be improved in each area to achieve the
maximum level of operational efficiency for existing and future ships.
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[1] Department of Technical Fleet Operation, National University “Odessa Maritime Academy”, 8, Didrikhson str., Odessa, 65029, Ukraine. Email: oleganaton@gmail.com. ORCID: https://orcid.org/ 0000-0002-3766-3188
[2] Department of Technical Fleet Operation, National University “Odessa Maritime Academy”, 8, Didrikhson str., Odessa, 65029, Ukraine. Email: golikov.onma@gmail.com. ORCID: https://orcid.org/ 0000-0003-1915-5216
[3] Department of Navigation and Maritime Security, Odesa National Maritime University, Mechnikov 34 Street, 65029 Odesa, Ukraine. Email: m.onmu@ukr.net. ORCID: https://orcid.org/ 0000-0001-9228-8459
[4] Department of Fleet Operation and Transport Technology, Odesa National Maritime University, Mechnikov 34 Street, 65029 Odesa, Ukraine. Email: onyshchenko@gmail.com. ORCID: https://orcid.org/ 0000-0002-7528-4939
[5] Marine Engineering Faculty, National University “Odessa Maritime Academy”, 8, Didrikhson str., Odessa, 65029, Ukraine. Email: obertiur.nuoma@gmail.com. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4367-5214