Article citation information:
Ghafouri Fard, Z., Khabiri, M.M., Afkhami Meybodi, P. An
innovative method in measuring permeability and evaporation parameters in
porous pavements with emphasis on its effects on increasing urban transport
safety. Scientific Journal of Silesian
University of Technology. Series Transport. 2022, 116, 125-140. ISSN: 0209-3324. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20858/sjsutst.2022.116.8.
Zohrah GHAFOURI FARD[1], Mohammad Mehdi KHABIRI[2],
Pouya AFKHAMI MEYBODI[3]
AN INNOVATIVE METHOD IN MEASURING PERMEABILITY AND EVAPORATION
PARAMETERS IN POROUS PAVEMENTS WITH EMPHASIS ON ITS EFFECTS ON INCREASING URBAN
TRANSPORT SAFETY
Summary. Today, the
increasing development of urbanization and climate change and its resulting
issues, including the occurrence of urban floods, is one of the important
issues facing city managers. One of these problems that seriously affect lives
today is the occurrence of floods and the inundation of urban thoroughfares.
Among the problems of floods in urban areas are the disruption of the urban
transportation system, reduced transportation safety, inundation of
thoroughfares, and consequently, the poor appearance of urban roads. One of the successful
strategies in controlling urban runoff is the use of porous pavements in urban
thoroughfares. The two capabilities of permeability and evaporation of a porous
pavement lead to reduced runoff and a resultant lack of occurrence of inundation
of thoroughfares; therefore, accurate measurement of these two parameters is of
special importance. This study aims to introduce two devices for measuring the
permeability and evaporation of porous asphalt with an innovative method that
can measure the permeability and evaporation of asphalt and porous concrete
with appropriate accuracy.
Keywords: porous
pavement, safety, urban transport measuring permeability, measuring evaporation
1. INTRODUCTION
Today, with
the growth of population and urban development, climate change and the
occurrence of floods, urban runoff control has become a serious problem in the
field of urban management [1]. The
occurrence of floods and the subsequent inundation of urban thoroughfares, in
addition to disrupting urban transportation and reducing road safety, which is
the most important feature of the road [2-7], has a
negative psychological effect on lives in terms of visual beauty. Because the
thoroughfares are very influential on the beauty of the urban texture and the
moods of people, thus, the control and management of urban runoff are of
special importance. The problems of traditional pavement have forced pavement
scientists to adopt new strategies for using new pavements, including porous
pavements in the pavement industry. This is because the porous pavement, which
is presently used as a procedure in urban roads with low traffic volume and
parking lots, is one of the methods of urban runoff control [8, 9].
Porous
pavement is the best runoff management innovative alternative method for
surface wastewater management because usually impermeable pavements allow water
to flow along the surface and drain into the drainage basin or trenches along
the roads or parking lots. However, porous pavement allows liquids to
penetrate. The advantages of this pavement include runoff control, noise
reduction, improved road safety for drivers and pedestrians due to the
reduction of water spray and slippery phenomenon during rains and the potential
to reduce frost due to proper drainage [10, 11]. In general,
porous pavement includes porous asphalt and porous concrete. Porous asphalt is
the same as ordinary asphalt but has less fine-grained and more uniform
granulation than ordinary asphalt; thus, the percentage of empty space in this
asphalt is more than that of ordinary asphalt [12, 13]. The initial
idea of porous asphalt was to reduce the height and intensity of runoff on the
pavement of airports, and thus, reduce the phenomenon of slippery water and
aircraft slip [14], which was
then used to increase safety and reduce landslides on suburban roads [15]. But today,
this type of asphalt is known as one of the best materials for reducing floods
and urban runoff [8, 16]. Porous
concrete is a special type of high porosity concrete that has been used in the
temperate regions of the United States since the 1970s
and has gained worldwide usage since the 1980s. High
permeability and its potential to reduce runoff led the Environmental
Protection Agency to define porous concrete as one of the best methods for
flood management [17, 18].
Two important features
of porous pavement, which distinguish this pavement from the conventional
pavement and reduce runoff, are permeability and evaporation [19-21]. The
permeability of porous pavement to water from snow and rain allows them to
penetrate the underlying layers of the porous pavement and prevents water from
accumulating on the pavement surface [11]. On the other
hand, porous pavement with the evaporation mechanism, especially when the lower
layers are not very permeable, expels runoff and prevents flooding.
In fact, the
high capacity of permeable pavements in holding water in the road body (up to
51 liters per square meter), and connecting it through the pores with the
surface, leads to a higher evaporation rate than impermeable surfaces [22]. Therefore,
accurate measurement of these two porous pavement properties is of particular
importance. In this research, the application of two devices for measuring the
permeability and evaporation of porous asphalt with an innovative method has
been investigated, and it should be noted that these two devices can also be
used to measure the permeability and evaporation of porous concrete pavement as
well.
2. LITERATURE
REVIEW
During
and after rains, phenomena such as slippery water, light reflection from the
wet surface of the road and flooding of roads can cause accidents and reduce
the safety of urban transportation; therefore, currently, attention to
increasing road safety in rainy conditions by using the appropriate pavement,
including porous pavement for roads has increased [23, 24]. Of course,
the permeability and evaporation properties of porous pavements lead to reduced
flooding of passages and consequently increase the coefficient of friction and
slip resistance [25, 26]. Hence,
measuring these two parameters is very crucial.
Generally,
regarding the measurement of porous asphalt permeability, there are two
methods: the falling head and the constant head, and the existing devices
measure the permeability rate of porous asphalt based on these two methods. In
the falling head test, changes in the head and flow rate over time are
determined. The falling head is recorded over time using the regression
analysis, the specific flow rate is obtained using Equation 1 [27]. In relation
1, V is a special flow and dh is the change of
head during dt.
The
permeability coefficient (K) and the non-Darcy parameter (i)
can also be obtained with the logarithm of the modified Darcy relation
according to Formula 2, which in the logarithmic diagram of m, the slope of the
line is obtained and also by placing i=1, k is also
obtained. For each sample, the experiment is repeated several times to obtain
accurate answers [27].
In
the constant head method, unlike the falling head method, the water height in
the experiment is constant and the test starts when the balance between input
and output flow is achieved. In this method, the permeability coefficient of
(K) and the non-Darcy parameter (i) can be calculated
from Equations 3 and 4 [27].
So
far, several devices have been designed to determine the degree of laboratory
permeability, including the asphalt pavement water permeability testing device
with application number 201821952532.5 in 2019, the asphalt mixture
permeability measuring device with application number 202020886465.2 in 2020,
the asphalt concrete internal permeability testing machine with application
number 201920590581.7 in 2020, the asphalt pavement water permeability testing
machine and water permeability testing method with application number
201810499181.5 in 2018, the asphalt concrete permeability testing device and
method with application number 202011082049.8 in 2020 and the permeability
devices mentioned in the By-Laws Documentation and Technical Basics
Instructions for the Design, Execution and Maintenance of Porous Asphalt (Issue
No. 384-2), including the Laboratory Permeability Instrument of the Army
Engineers Group, the Florida Department of Transportation, the University of
Science and Technology [27]. All of the
abovementioned devices measure the permeability of porous asphalt by passing a
volume of water through the pores of the porous asphalt using a falling head or
a constant head, while in reality, porous asphalt must be able to absorb
raindrops quickly and prevent the creation of runoff in the passages [28], not to pass
a volume of water by itself; it is,
therefore, important to build a device that can measure the permeability of
water droplets in porous asphalt. In this regard, in 2020, a device called the
permeability measurement of permeable asphalt mixture was introduced with
application number 201921353588.3 (Figure 1), which with the help of a water
distribution box located exactly on the surface of the asphalt sample, the
volume of water from the built-in holes at the bottom of the distribution box
to measure the permeability of asphalt with water droplets. Although with the
introduction of this device, the defect of volumetric passage of water through
porous asphalt to measure permeability was eliminated, however, this device had
defects such as limited rainfall distribution box distance and asphalt surface
and creating water particle pressure due to short distance from the sample
surface and reporting unreal infiltration, impossibility of measuring the
permeability of porous asphalt samples with different dimensions and shapes and
the lack of ease of operation and repair of it.
Fig. 1. Permeability measuring device of permeable asphalt mixture
In
addition, Ma and his colleagues in a study titled “the effect of pore
clogging on the permeability of porous asphalt pavement”, used a device
capable of measuring the permeability of porous asphalt by passing water
droplets. This device, which can measure horizontal permeability by passing
water droplets through porous asphalt, has two water collection tanks around
the sample that collect drained water from porous asphalt (Figure 2). By
measuring the volume of water and the time of water flow and also having the
cross section of the reservoir, the value of the permeability coefficient is
calculated using Equation 5 [29]. It should be
noted that this device does not have the ability to measure the vertical
permeability of porous asphalt, while the main application of porous asphalt is
due to the permeability in the vertical direction and horizontal permeability
due to the limited thickness of the asphalt, and also, its low value compared
to vertical permeability [30] has little
practical application.
Fig. 2. Horizontal asphalt permeability measuring device [29]
As
mentioned, in addition to the permeability of porous asphalt, the evaporation
properties of this type of asphalt have a significant effect on reducing the
subsurface moisture of the pavement and reducing runoff [31]. Lee et al.
in a study titled "Experimental study of evaporation rate in permeable
pavements", measured the evaporation rate of porous pavements in the
traditional way. In the study, the samples were placed in a container with a
certain amount of water in the open at the same time, and after at least one
day by calculating the difference between the weight of the container with the
sample and water before the test and the weight of the container with the
sample and the remaining water after one day, they obtained the amount of
evaporated water and divided the amount of evaporated water by the time to
obtain the evaporation rate [32]. In the
traditional method of measuring evaporation, this test cannot be performed in
the case of rain and snow. On the other hand, if one of the sample containers
becomes problematic, then the whole test is canceled and must be performed
again. In addition, a large number of containers are needed to perform the
experiment, and most importantly, if another researcher performs this
experiment in another place with different climatic conditions, the results
cannot be comparable to the previous researcher, as environmental conditions
are different. In 2017, a device for measuring the evaporation of permeable
concrete was developed and patented. This device consists of two containers
that are suspended on a fixed rod. The first container (which has holes at the
bottom) is aggregate and a sample of porous concrete and the second container
is full of sand. Pour the amount of water on top of the first container and
after a while, water seeps from the bottom of it (Figure 3).
When
the water has drained from the bottom of the first container and the material
inside is wet, start recording the force using the loading equipment and note
the amount of force applied by the loading device at this time as
Fig. 3. Porous concrete evaporation measuring device [33]
Aboufoul et al. in a
study stated that water evaporation from porous asphalt is related to the
vacancy topology, and measured the rate of evaporation using computed
tomography (CT) scans with a device shown in Figure 4. This device includes a
transparent container made of plastic with a thickness of 5 mm with internal
dimensions of
Fig. 4. Evaporation measuring device with computed tomography X-ray
scans [34]
As
mentioned, several devices have been proposed to measure the permeability and
evaporation of porous asphalt; however, despite their advantages, each of them
has also disadvantages. Therefore, this study aims to introduce a device for
measuring the permeability of porous asphalt with a rain simulator and a device
for measuring the evaporation of porous asphalt, which eliminates the
disadvantages of previous devices.
3. DEVICE INTRODUCTION
3.1.
Porous asphalt permeability measuring device with rain
simulator
This device has a one-meter
frame, a shower head and a hose, a compartment full of aggregates with
granulation of the base layer (without filler), which is open at the bottom of
the container for the passage of water, and a net installed to hold the
aggregates at the bottom, a container of specified volume and a stopwatch
(Figure 5a, b). A one meter frame is made by
connecting three pieces of polycarbonate talc with dimensions of 30 by 100 cm
with the help of glue, and the headboard is mounted on a piece of polycarbonate
talc with dimensions of 35 by 30 cm (Figure 5c) that
is mounted on the frame. Then, with the help of a hose clamp, a hose of
suitable length is connected from one end to the shower head and from the other
end to the faucet. To make the container in which the aggregates are placed,
the same polycarbonate talc parts can be used, so that for the edges of the
container, polycarbonate parts with a length of 25 cm and a suitable height are
used, and for the bottom of the dish, a plastic net is used, which is fastened
to the walls of the dish with the help of glue. The height of the container, or
in other words, the height of the talc parts of the container made of polycarbonate,
depends on the purpose of the test. For example, if the purpose is to measure
the exact penetration of porous asphalt by considering the base, use a
container with a height of 15 cm that corresponds to the thickness of the base
layer (Figure 5d) and if the purpose is to calculate
the net penetration of porous asphalt, a height of 5 cm is sufficient. However,
it should be noted that in addition to polycarbonate, other materials such as
Plexiglas sheets or light metal sheets or any similar material that has the
required strength could be used to make this device.
The
method of testing with this device is that the sample is placed in a special
place on a container full of aggregate under the shower, then the faucet is
opened, and the amount of water should be adjusted so that the amount of water
entering the sample and the amount of water leaving the sample be the same.
Thus, water does not collect on the sample, and the incoming water completely
penetrates. Then take a special container with a certain volume under the
shower and measure and record the time it takes for the container to be filled
with water with a stopwatch, and using Equations 7 and 8 (fluid continuity
relations), the amount of flow and infiltration (speed of water passing through
porous asphalt pores) can be calculated. The shower head, which is embedded in
the frame at a certain distance from the sample, converts water into droplets
and spreads the water droplets on the sample, making the permeability of the
water droplets in the asphalt to be considered, which is more in line with
reality. Furthermore, this device measures the permeability of porous asphalt
by simulating rain and constant head. It should be noted that the appropriate
distance of the head from the sample surface in this device causes raindrops to
fall and penetrate the surface of the asphalt sample only under the effect of
gravity. However, if the shower head is exactly on the surface of the sample
and without a distance from it or within a short distance, water droplets enter
the sample with high pressure and intensity and unreal infiltration is
reported. Figure 6 shows a view of this device.
In relations 7 and 8:
Q = Flow in cubic meters per second;
V = Container volume in cubic meters;
t = Container filling time in seconds;
K = Penetration in meters per second;
A = Asphalt sample surface that passes water in
square meters.
|
(B) |
(A) |
|
|
(D) |
(C) |
|
|
Fig. 5. Different components of
porous asphalt penetration measuring device with |
|
As
mentioned, with this device, samples with different dimensions and shapes can
be tested; however, a suitable shower head in accordance with the shape and
size of the sample should be used so that the shape and area of the shower head
are the same as the shape and area of the sample. The maps presented in this
paper are assumed to be tested on a 15 cm by 15 cm cube sample. Also, because
under the asphalt sample, there is a layer of stone materials with the
characteristics and granulation of the base layer, it can be said that the
performance of porous asphalt has been simulated in practice in the laboratory,
which also applies the base effect on asphalt permeability and measures more
real permeability. Hence, there is no need to perform an executive permeability
test after the implementation of this type of asphalt, as this device has
simulated the conditions of implementation in the laboratory.
Fig. 6. Porous asphalt penetration measuring
device with rain simulation
3.2.
Porous asphalt permeability measuring device with rain
simulator
The porous asphalt
evaporator is a device for accurately and conveniently measuring the amount of
water evaporated by porous asphalt and comparing these values for different
samples, including a fan mounted on the door of the device (Figure 7a) and a container with holes and holes in its walls and sealing foam (Figure 7b). The
process of testing with an evaporator is to pour some aggregate with base
granulation and a certain amount of water (500 g of water) into the device and
place the asphalt sample on the aggregates so that the surface of the sample is
completely along the holes created in the wall of the container (adjusting it
is possible by increasing or decreasing the amount of aggregates below the
sample). Cover the perimeter of the sample completely with foam so that there
are no holes for air to pass through, as such, evaporation can only take place
through the porous asphalt cavities (Figure 7c).
After adjusting the humidity and temperature of the test environment and
placing the hygrometer and thermometer inside the device, close the lid and
weigh and record the whole device. Then put the device in the right place and
turn on the fan. By turning on the fan, airflow is created on the surface of
the sample, which helps to evaporate quickly and prevents the accumulation of
moisture on the surface of the sample and reduces the amount of evaporation
after a while from the beginning of the test. After 24 hours, the whole device
is weighed again and the evaporation value is calculated with relation 9. Figure
8 shows a view of this device.
In this relation:
E = The amount of
evaporation in grams per day;
|
(B) |
(A) |
|
(C) |
|
|
Fig. 7. Different components of the porous asphalt evaporation
measuring device |
|
4. ADVANTAGES OF
THE MEASURING DEVICES FOR EVAPORATION AND PERMEABILITY OF POROUS ASPHALT
As mentioned,
these two devices have advantages that eliminate the disadvantages of the previous
devices. A full description
of the benefits of these two devices is provided in Table 1.
Fig. 8. Porous asphalt evaporation measuring device
Tab.
1.
Advantages
of the devices for measuring the evaporation and permeability of porous asphalt
|
Advantages |
Device name |
|
|
Porous asphalt permeability measuring device
with rain simulation |
Porous asphalt evaporation measuring device |
|
|
• More accurate and realistic
measurement of the permeability of porous asphalt by passing water droplets
through the sample to calculate the permeability • Measuring the permeability of porous asphalt
samples with different dimensions and shapes • No need to test the field penetration
on fresh porous asphalt after application • Use of base materials to determine
more accurate and real permeability • Ease of operation and repair of the
device • Simplicity and cheapness of device
parts • Limitation of precipitation distance
and non-pressure of water particles due to short distance from the sample
surface and report of unreal infiltration • Ability to easily adjust the volume of
water entering the device with the help of a faucet and more accurate
permeability measurement • Measuring the permeability of other
porous materials including porous concrete |
• Control of environmental conditions
such as temperature and humidity • Testing for samples of different sizes
and shapes • Ease and convenience of working with
the device • Simplicity and cheapness of device
parts • Measurement of evaporation of other
porous materials, including porous concrete • Use of base materials to determine
more accurate and realistic evaporation rates |
|
5. THE
TEST RESULTS
Table
2 and Figure 9 provide an example of the results of experiments performed by
these two devices. These results are related to the samples of cubic porous
asphalt with dimensions of 15 by 15 cm with different granulations presented in
Table 3 and the percentage of bitumen is 3 to 4% (with a step of 0.5%).
Tab. 2.
Results
of permeability and evaporation test using
the device for measuring the evaporation and permeability of porous asphalt
|
Percentage of bitumen
Granulation |
|
3 |
3.5 |
|
|
Permeability |
Evaporation |
Permeability |
||
|
A |
4.76 |
0.0032650 |
24.500 |
0.0031840 |
|
D |
3.60 |
0.0023200 |
19.500 |
0.0022820 |
|
C |
3.00 |
0.0018060 |
14.500 |
0.0017990 |
|
E |
2.60 |
0.0016210 |
10.125 |
0.0016020 |
|
B |
2.36 |
0.0014294 |
4.750 |
0.0014247 |
|
|
|
3.5 |
4 |
|
|
Evaporation |
Permeability |
Evaporation |
||
|
A |
4.76 |
24.000 |
0.0030690 |
23.70 |
|
D |
3.60 |
19.000 |
0.0022580 |
18.50 |
|
C |
3.00 |
14.050 |
0.0017840 |
13.55 |
|
E |
2.60 |
9.500 |
0.0015720 |
9.00 |
|
B |
2.36 |
4.375 |
0.0014247 |
4.00 |
Fig.
9. Results of permeability test with the porous asphalt permeability measuring
device with the rain simulator and evaporation measurement results with the
porous asphalt evaporation measuring device
Tab. 3.
Granulation
of porous asphalt test samples
|
Percentage of passage |
|||||
|
E Granulation |
D Granulation |
C Granulation |
B Granulation |
A Granulation |
Sieve (mm) |
|
100.00 |
100.00 |
100.00 |
100.00 |
100.00 |
25.000 |
|
97.50 |
92.50 |
95.00 |
100.00 |
90.00 |
19.000 |
|
74.00 |
62.00 |
68.00 |
80.00 |
56.00 |
9.500 |
|
21.25 |
13.75 |
17.50 |
25.00 |
10.00 |
4.750 |
|
8.75 |
6.25 |
7.50 |
10.00 |
5.00 |
2.360 |
|
3.50 |
2.50 |
3.00 |
4.00 |
2.00 |
0.075 |
As
noticed from Table 2 and Figure 9, the higher the grain size per cent of fixed
bitumen, the greater the permeability and evaporation rate; So that granulation
A, due to being a larger aggregate and having more cavities and porosity, has
more fluid passage ducts than other granulations, and thus, has more
permeability and evaporation. In addition, granulation B has less permeability
and evaporation than other granulations due to its finer fineness, and
consequently, cavities and porosity. On the other hand, with increasing the
amount of bitumen due to the filling of some cavities with bitumen, the amount
of permeability and evaporation decreases. Of course, it should be noted that
from 3% bitumen to 4% bitumen, the amount of permeability reduction is not significant
because increasing the amount of bitumen is small. Since the results of these
two devices are consistent with previous research [34-36], then both
devices have good performance in measuring the rate of permeability and
evaporation.
6. CONCLUSION
Since
permeability and evaporation are two important properties of porous asphalt to
reduce runoff, measuring these two parameters is of particular importance. However,
several devices have been proposed to measure these two parameters, each of
which, despite its advantages, also has disadvantages. This study aims to
introduce a porous asphalt permeability measuring device with a rain simulator
and a patented porous asphalt evaporation measuring device that does not have
the disadvantages of previous devices. These two devices can measure the
permeability and evaporation of porous asphalt with more accuracy and ease for
samples with different dimensions and shapes. Consequently, these devices can
be used in road construction science research centers, porous asphalt road
construction companies, concrete and asphalt laboratories in engineering
colleges, and road and urban research centers that study porous asphalt to
accurately measure the permeability and evaporation of porous asphalt.
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Received 05.04.2022; accepted in
revised form 30.05.2022
Scientific Journal of Silesian University of Technology. Series
Transport is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License
[1] Faculty of Civil
Engineering, Department of Roads
and Transportation, Yazd
University, Yazd, Iran. Email: zohreh.ghafori76@gmail.com. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9084-982X
[2] Faculty of Civil Engineering, Department of Roads and Transportation, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran.
Email: mkhabiri@yazd.ac.ir. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3434-7603
[3] Faculty of Civil Engineering, Department of Roads and Transportation, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran.
Email: pooya.afkhamy@gmail.com. ORCID:
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5497-9291