Article
citation information:
Pačaiová, H., Tomašková, M., Balážiková,
M., Krajňák, J. Analysis of air-traffic threats. Scientific Journal of Silesian University of
Technology. Series Transport. 2021, 110,
143-155. ISSN: 0209-3324. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20858/sjsutst.2021.110.12.
Hana PAČAIOVÁ[1],
Marianna TOMAŠKOVÁ[2],
Michaela BALÁŽIKOVÁ[3], Jozef KRAJŇÁK[4]
ANALYSIS
OF AIR-TRAFFIC THREATS
Summary. Globally, air transport
has seen a greater increase in recent years. This manuscript is divided into
three parts for analysing the negative effects of aviation. The first part is
focused on the identification of sources of aircraft noise. While the second
part of this article describes the basic principles of the construction and
operation of an aircraft jet engine concerning the gaseous emissions produced
by such an engine (Third part missing?). The main benefit of this article is
the evaluation of the reliability of the human factor because the human
factor is an integral part of technical systems and processes. Reliability
assessment was performed using the TESEO method. The
ergonomic parameter, that is, the cabin noise, was quantified in the given
method. The measurement was performed on two types of aircraft, namely in the
cabin of a transport jet aircraft and in the cabin of asmall
transport aircraft equipped with turboprop engines.
Keywords: environment, air-traffic, threat, noise,
gaseous emissions
1.
INTRODUCTION
It is a well-known fact that during the last few years, a multi-percent
increase in air transport has been recorded globally. However, air transport
also has relevant negative environmental impacts, even though its share is
relatively low compared to other modes of transport [1]. These impacts are mainly
manifested by air pollution, which is caused by emissions from aircraft
engines, increased noise, high fuel consumption, and the occupation of land
necessary for the building of airports.
Transport, as the main factor of global business, negatively affects all
elements of the environment [1-3]. According to the 2016 European Aviation
Environmental Report, the number of flights will increase by 45% by 2035
(although it may not be so high, due to the current COVID-19
pandemic). About one-third of Europe's overall energy is consumed in the
transport industry [4].
The Ministry of Transport, Construction and Regional Development of the
Slovak Republic states that the air is the most affected by the combustion of hydrocarbon
fuels in internal combustion engines, which are installed in the vehicles where
carcinogenic substances, toxic substances, and substances that contribute to
global warming of the Earth's atmosphere are produced. One of the goals of the
Strategic Development Plan is to achieve a 40% use of sustainable low-carbon
fuel in aviation by 2050 [5].
The negative impacts of air-traffic, except for high emissions, also
include increased noise, high fuel consumption, and pollution in airport
surroundings. Air pollution damages human health and the environment. A
significant proportion of Europe's population lives in areas, particularly in
cities, where the air quality standards are exceeded: namely, the pollution
caused by ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and particulate matter poses serious health
risks. Some studies point to a link between air pollution from traffic and the
incidence of atopic eczema in children [6].
It is extremely important to address the objective of protecting human
health and the environment in a whole complex system [7]. The negative
influences of air-traffic can be classified as follows: influences due to the
demands of air transport concerning the territory; impacts on the territory,
which is affected by the operation of air transport; influences due to the
operation factors of air transport equipment and the transport process in
general.
The main influences due to the demands of air transport concerning the
territory are caused by the seizure and degradation of agricultural land. The
construction of an airport must consider sensitive areas for noise, the
occurrence of protected nature areas, national parks, health-resorts, the
possibility of oil spills into water sources, etc. [8]. The planning and
construction of airports must consider the economic development balance and the
sustainability of the land fund (that is, Sustainable Land Management (SLM)) [9].
The most important impacts on the territory, which is affected by air
transport, are air pollution due to dust swirl and exhaust gases.
The negative influences due to the operation factors of air transport
equipment and transport processes, in general, are incorrectly situated
airports and noise around airports.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Nowadays,
aircraft jet engines are the most widely used driving units of modern
commercial and military aeroplanes. Therefore, it is very important to analyse
their environmental impacts.
2.1.
Identification of noise threats in air-traffic
Transportation
is one of the largest contributors to community noise. The aviation environment
is characterised by multiple sources of noise, both on the ground and in the
air. Noise affects people in many ways, and as its level increases from
detectable, it could get annoying. Knowledge of the noise source plays a significant
role in determining the community noise responses, for example, three different
transportation noises, including those of aircraft, rail, and road traffic, are
often rated differently when the average A-weighted Sound Pressure Level (LA)
is the same [10, 11].
Although
noise is a factor which can generally cause hearing losses, jet aeroplanes are
manufactured under international standards, producing noise levels below
hearing threshold limits [12]. Noise annoyance is defined as physical or
psychological. Aircraft noise is considered unpleasant if it interferes with
everyday activities. Although aircraft are nowadays more than 20 dB quieter
than in the past, these benefits are not fully perceived by aircraft
passengers. Passenger demands for enhanced cabin comfort, along with the easing
of legislation on noise pollution and human exposure to noise, have made
aircraft interior noise an important commercial asset and one of the primary
market catalysts [13]. There are many different sources in and around an
airport that produce noise. Noise is produced by aircraft equipment power
plants, transmission systems, jet efflux, propellers, rotors, hydraulic and
electrical actuators, cabin conditioning and pressurisation systems, cockpit
advisory and alert systems, communications equipment, etc. [31].
There
are three sources of aircraft engine noise: (1) combustion in the engine;
(2) the vibration of engine parts; (3) engine emissions.
Tab.1 lists the various noise sources
with their sound level in dB for illustration, there is a comparison of sources
from air transport, including jet aircraft, small single-engine aircraft,
helicopters with one rotor, and a jet engine, and other types of noise sources.
Tab. 1
Level
of noise sources [31]
|
Noise sources |
Level (dB) |
||
|
Urban home, Average office Noisy Office, Low Traffic Street Jet Transports (Cabin) |
40-60 60-80 60-80 |
|
|
|
Small Single
Plane (Cockpit) |
70-90 |
|
|
|
Public Address (PA) Systems Single Rotor Helicopter (Cockpit) Power Lawn Mower, Chain Saw Rock Concert |
90-100 80-102 100-110 115-120 |
|
|
|
Jet Engine
(Proximity) |
130-160 |
|
|
The most known
source is a single-engine aircraft, and the first thing you may think of when
recalling aircraft noise is its engine [14]. Engines are indeed a major source
of noise, but they are gradually getting quieter. Their construction and
technology have reached a point where few things can be done to decrease the
noise of the engine. Most of the noise generated from aircraft engines
typically occurs from the high-velocity exhaust gases and the air flow in the
fan system.
Another aspect
of an aircraft that generates noise is the airframe. Many people are not aware
of this noise, however, it may become a concern as the engine efficiency and
noise reduction have decreased as much as is technologically possible.
Exhaust noise
results from the aircraft’s high-speed turbulence that moves outward into
a relatively dormant atmosphere. Behind the exhaust port, the jet stream ejects
outward at an extremely high speed. The outward atmosphere, meanwhile, has not
yet fully blended with the jet stream and, consequently, high-frequency noise
occurs due to the high-speed jet stream in this area. When the jet stream
leaves the exhaust port and keeps moving behind the aeroplane, it gradually
decelerates and starts to blend with the atmosphere. Then, rough sounds occur and
the frequency of the jet stream noise reduces. As the energy of the engine
emitting airflow gradually disappears, most of it turns into low-frequency
noise. In terms of the mechanical noise from turbo spinning, it is
high-frequency noise. Even though high-frequency noise is more annoying, it
disappears faster when transmitting in the air and is subject to interference
by construction, the terrain, and the atmosphere. Therefore, high- and
low-frequency noises are both important for areas close to an airport, while
low-frequency noise is the main consideration for areas farther away [15].
One of the
sources of aircraft noise is wind. Computing tools at the design stage of new
aircraft, model the aerodynamics to highlight areas of high airflow that are
likely to increase cabin noise [16]. Aircraft noise sources are turbulent
airflow around the aircraft, radio-correspondence, air conditioning, and
supersonic bangs [12]. These sources can be classified as follows:
1. Source of noise and type of aircraft
design – the sources of noise in the jet aircraft are the engine intake
port and the outlet nozzle. The inlet noise is close to the intensity of
90-100 dB(A). The outlet nozzle noise is broadband in
nature and radiates to a conically widening gas outlet area. Noise levels are
up to 140 dB(A). Motors and propellers are similar
sources of noise in propeller aircraft. Propeller noise has a relatively narrow
frequency spectrum. It affects the engine mode, propeller speed, and blade
count. The mean intensity value is 110 dB(A). Maximum
noise emissions occur in the aeroplane axis.
2. Source of noise and the air circulation
plane – noise is caused by the turbulence of air between the layers of
air that bypass the plane. This is noise over a wide frequency range. In particular,
the high-frequency component also increases with an increasing speed. The intensity
and character of the noise level are influenced by the aerodynamic layout of
the fuselage and aircraft carrier, the altitude and speed, and the flight path
profiles.
3. Source of noise and radio-correspondence
– this is a broadband noise of an impulse character with a maximum in the
range of 500 to 4000 Hz. The maximum intensity value can be up to 110 dB(A).
4. Noise from aircraft systems –
cockpit and cabin pressurisation and conditioning systems are often major
contributors within cabins of both civilian and military aircraft. However, one
of the most significant sources of cabin noise from commercial jet aircraft,
other than the engines, is the Auxiliary Power Unit (APU),
an on‑board generator used in aircraft to start the main
engines, usually with compressed air, and to provide electrical power while the
aircraft is on the ground. Other internal aircraft systems can also contribute,
such as specialised electronic equipment in some military aircraft.
5. Air conditioning in an aeroplane –
passengers and aircrew are exposed to low-frequency sound in the long term. Its
characteristics and intensity depend on the design of the air conditioning
system, the engine running, and the size of the pressurised cabin, and can
reach significant values of up to 100 dB(A) [31].
2.2.
Environmental impact of gaseous emissions in air-traffic
Aircraft jet
engines are the aircraft engines used in most commercial and military aeroplanes.
These engines were intensively introduced into active operation during the 1950s.
The basic
principle of the aircraft jet engine functioning can be simply described in the
following way [17]. The input air flow enters through an annular air intake,
which is situated in the front of the engine, and thereafter, the air flow
passes into a compressor, which compresses the input air. The compressed air,
with high pressure and temperature, enters the combustion chambers. It is mixed
with the fuel in the combustion chambers and the fuel-air mixture is
continuously burning during the jet engine operation after an initial step, that is, starting the ignition. The burning process
results in a hot and fast outflow of gases flowing into the turbine. The turbine
is driven by the kinetic energy of hot gases, whereby the turbine and the
compressor are connected by a common shaft. After a final expansion in the
turbine, the hot gases flow through the exhaust nozzle at a high speed and, in
this way, the thrust force is created according to the physical law of “action-reaction”.
Regarding
technical development, it is possible to say that the first aircraft jet
engines were the turbojet engines, that is, jet engines without a bypass (Fig.
1). The second development step was the construction of the bypass engine with
a low bypass ratio (Fig. 2). The following development introduced bypass
engines with a high bypass ratio. These engines are also called the turbofan
engines (Fig. 3).
Fig. 1. External shell of a turbojet
Fig. 2. Bypass engine with a low bypass
engine [27]
ratio [28]
Fig.
3. Turbofan engine [29]
Fig. 4. View of a turbo-prop engine [30]
Turbojet
aircraft engines, that is, jet engines without a bypass, are characterised by one compact stream of a gaseous medium,
which passes through the engine. The external shell of these engines has a slim
rotational shape (Fig. 1). In the case of bypass engines, the stream of
compressed air is divided into two parts. The first part is the external flow,
that is, the cold flow or bypass air flow. The second part is the internal
flow, that is, the hot stream, which flows behind the compressor towards the
combustion chambers. According to the ratio between the external and internal
flow capacity, bypass engines can have either a low or high bypass ratio
(Fig. 2 and Fig. 3). A special kind of jet engine is the turbo-prop
engine, shown in Fig. 4, which is included in most propeller aircraft.
There
are two different categories of jet engine emissions: noise emissions and
gaseous emissions [18]. The noise, which is generated by the aircraft jet
engines, is perceived immediately, and above all, in the area close to the
airports. The gaseous emissions, which are caused by the aircraft driving
units, are not so obvious. Another relevant aspect is that the share of the
fuel consumption of modern passenger aeroplanes in
terms of the global consumption of petroleum fuels is only about 5%. The
specific fuel consumption of the present-day long-haul commercial aircraft is
less than in the sector of individual automotive transport or it is fully
comparable to it (Tab. 2).
Tab. 2
Mutual
comparison of specific energy consumption in
passenger transport [18]
|
Passenger Transport |
Specific Consumption of Energy (kJ/person·km) |
|
Automotive |
2500 |
|
Air |
2100 |
|
Railway |
1300 |
|
Bus |
700 |
Fig. 5. Boeing B-737
with the turbofan
Fig. 6. Visible smoky trails [24]
engines [23]
For
example, the specific fuel consumption of the newest versions of the worldwide
popular passenger aircraft, Boeing B-737 (Fig. 5), which is driven by engines
with a high bypass ratio, is approx. 4 litres of
kerosene per 1 passenger and 100 km of flying distance. Such specific fuel
consumption is similar to the fuel consumption of a typical passenger vehicle. The most harmful pollutants that occur in the gaseous emissions of
aircraft jet engines are carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), nitrogen
oxides (NOX), and sulphur dioxide (SO2).
The real chemical composition of the exhaust gases is variable regarding the
jet engine operational regime (Fig. 7).
Fig.
7. Generation of gaseous emissions depending on
the working regimes of the jet engine [18]
The
production of NOX is typical for a high thrust regime of a power
unit, namely during take-off and the climbing phase of a flight. The unburned
hydrocarbons (HC) and CO are characteristic of a low level of thrust,
especially during the idling operational regime aground or when a plane is
taxiing. The amount of SO2 depends on the
quality of fuel, namely on the amount of sulphur. Unburned hydrocarbons (HC)
and CO are typical for a low level of engine thrust, especially in the idling
operational regime during waiting on the ground or when the plane is taxiing.
NOX emissions are characteristic in the case of a high engine thrust
regime, especially during the take-off and the climbing phase of a plane. The
emissions of SO2 depend on the fuel
quality, that is, on the content of sulphur in the fuel.
Another
undesirable phenomenon, which occurs during the aircraft jet engine operation,
is the production of smoke emissions. Visible smoky trails are generated
if the composition of the fuel-air mixture is not optimised and due to this fact,
the burning process in the combustion chamber is not optimal. In such a case,
the small fuel drops are carbonised on the internal shell inside the combustion
chamber. This imperfect combustion process creates the smoky trails, which are
visible as a black track behind the aeroplane shown in Fig. 6.
2.3. Human
factor in air-traffic
Air
inspectors argue that air accidents do not have one cause, but rather, are a
group of several unfortunate circumstances. Statistics show that the most
common cause of aviation accidents is human error [25].
The
Statistics of Causes of Fatal Accidents [26] on air accidents that have
occurred since 1950 states that in 53% of the cases, the main cause was pilot
error. This is followed by technical failure (20%), weather (12%), sabotage and
terrorism (8%), maintenance errors, ground dispatcher failure and the
refuelling of inappropriate fuel (6%), and others.
The
Swiss Air Archives Office states (from a database of 20,000 accidents) that up
to 68% of air accidents are caused by the human factor. The aviation statistics
show that in 16% of cases, accidents occurred due to weather, and in 5%,
accidents occurred due to engineering failure [26]. The human factor of failure
requires airlines to increase their effort to pay great attention, mainly in
terms of pilots. Therefore, the pilot must be able to react in different
situations. Their psychological profile is also very important. The important
role of reliability in terms of the human factor, that is, the pilot has a
suitable working environment, means that any legislative required limits must
not be exceeded.
The
aircraft's personnel are exposed to noise. A high noise level affects the
performance, reliability in driving, and decision making. Pilots must meet the
high physical and mental requirements imposed on them and which are regularly
verified by the Commission Regulation (EU) No 1178/2011 of 3 November 2011,
laying down technical requirements and administrative procedures related to
civil aviation aircrew pursuant to Regulation (EC) No 2018/1339 of the European
Parliament and of the Council, as amended. The applicant must not suffer from
any disease or condition that could render the applicant suddenly incapable of
performing their duties safely. The previous section describes the construction
and types of engines, and their impact on the environment.
Therefore,
this study, applying the TESEO method (Human
Reliability Assessment techniques), focused on estimating the probability of
pilot error, depending on the noise from the aircraft engines.
2.4. Noise and
pilot failure assessment
The
activities of pilots are influenced by factors such as the flight duration,
aircraft type, ergonomic design of the aircraft interior, communication
devices, etc. The TESEO method was applied for the analysis of the
pilot´s activity in Tab. 3.
Tab. 3
TESEO
method with noise exposure
|
Factor |
Criteria |
Quantitative characteristics |
Ki value |
|
K1 |
Type of activity
carried out |
Simple routine activity |
0.001 |
|
Action requiring attention |
0.01 |
||
|
Non-routine (unusual) activity |
0.1 |
||
|
K2 |
Stress factor
of usual activities |
Available time < 2 s |
10 |
|
2 - 10 s |
1 |
||
|
10 - 20 s |
0.5 |
||
|
Stress factor
of extraordinary activities
|
<3 s |
10 |
|
|
3 - 30 s |
1 |
||
|
30 - 35 s |
0.3 |
||
|
45 - 60 s |
0.1 |
||
|
K3 |
Factor of worker´s
qualities |
Expert, professionally
competent |
0.5 |
|
Average knowledge and
competence |
1 |
||
|
Poor knowledge and competence |
3 |
||
|
K4 |
Factor of anxiety
and stress |
The condition of a serious
unpredictable event |
3 |
|
Potential emergency situation |
2 |
||
|
Normal state |
1 |
||
|
K5 |
Ergonomic factor |
Excellent vibro-acoustic
environment and operational coordination (under LAEX,8h <
75 dB ) |
0.7 |
|
Good vibro-acoustic
environment (LAEX,8h
= 75 to 80 dB) |
1 |
||
|
Disturbing the vibro-acoustic environment (LAEX,8h =
80 to 85 dB) |
3 |
||
|
Disturbed vibro-acoustic
environment with poor operational coordination (above LAEX,8h =
85 to 87dB) |
7 |
||
|
Unsuitable vibro-acoustic
environment (above LAEX,8h
> 87 dB) |
10 |
A
human reliability assessment study was performed for two types of aircraft. The
first assessment was made for the cabin of a transport jet aircraft, where
there was a common space for the crew of passengers and two pilots. The
measured noise exposure level was 75 dB, which is in line with the fact that in
the cabin of current jet airliners, a noise level of up to 80 dB is permissible
within ANNEX 16. The second assessment was applied to a small sports
(transport) two-pilot aircraft (with a turbo-prop engine). In this case, the
measured noise exposure values were much higher, exceeding 87 dB.
For
analysis of the pilot´s activity, the TESEO
method as shown in Tab. 3, was used to reveal the likelihood of human failure
in individual activities. The individual criteria (categories) were adjusted
considering the impact of noise, as well as other factors that normally affect
the activities of pilots. After measuring the noise exposure of pilots, they
were asked to assign Ki weights
corresponding to their workload.
Synergy
of noise and other factors of the working environment increases the risks and
likelihood of a human failing to perform their work. The TESEO
method is based on the following formula (1):
|
|
(1) |
Practical application in aircraft control no. 1:
Select parameters:
Extraordinary (unusual) activity - 0.1
Stress factor of extraordinary activities - 0.3
Expert, professionally qualified - 0.5
Severe unpredictable state of the event - 3
Good vibro-acoustic
environment (LAEX, 8h = 75
dB to 80 dB) - 1
The resulting P (HEP) value for the pilot in the
cabin with noise exposure of up to 80 dB, for example, Jet Transports
(Cabin), is
|
|
(2) |
Practical application in aircraft control no. 2:
Select parameters:
Irregular activity - 0.1
Stress factor - 0.3
Professionally qualified worker to perform work
- 0.5
Serious events - 3
Unsuitable vibro-acoustic
environment (over LAEX, 8h
> 87 dB) -10
The resulting P (HEP) value for the pilot in the
cabin with noise exposure above 80 dB, for example, Small Single Plane
(Cockpit), is
|
|
(3) |
If
the resultant P (HEP) is greater than 1, the probability of human factor
failure is 1. The closer to 1 the value is, the higher the probability of
human factor failure.
From the
examples, it can be concluded that when operating an aircraft, noise exposure
may affect the reliability of the pilot and may lead to an undesirable event,
such as an accident. We are aware that the investigated statistical sample
of four pilots is relatively low, however, their practical experiences can be
considered for future research in this area.
3.
DISCUSSION
Based
on the assessment of human reliability, it can be stated that there is a higher
probability of failure for the human factor in the second case, that is, for
small sport or transport aircraft with a turboprop engine. These aircraft
represent not only a higher probability of human failure but also higher noise
emissions caused by the operation of these aircraft. The TESEO
method was applied because it allows various factors to be combined
qualitatively and quantitatively for evaluation.
It
is a well-known fact that aircraft jet engines represent superior engineering
works with the top technical parameters. Thanks to this fact, the environmental
impacts of the aircraft engines are continuously minimised [25].
Low-frequency
noise can be a serious problem in the aircraft cabin, depending on the engine
type. Low-frequency aeroplane noise during take-off and landing periods is a
serious hazard. There is very little attenuation at low frequencies, and
low-frequency sound can propagate to relatively long distances [27, 29].
The
interesting thing about low-frequency sound is the fact that we do not have to
hear it, but we feel its pressure in our ears. It emits acoustic energy that is
harmful to humans. Noise affects not only our auditory organ, but also
negatively affects the cardiovascular and nervous systems, and mainly on the
reliability of the human factor. Using the TESEO
method, it was found that the reliability of the human factor is lower in the
case of a small transport aircraft with a tuber-propeller engine due to the
higher noise level. However, failure cannot be ruled out, even in the first
case, given the exposure time and the nature of the noise, depending on the
type of aircraft engine. This fact will be the subject of a further study to be
conducted by the authors.
Compared
to other modes of transport (road transport, railway transport, and water
transport), the number of aircraft accidents is almost negligible. However, in
the case of air accidents, the consequences are often fatal and cannot be
overlooked, mainly because of the media coverage that generates a certain sense
of distrust among people concerning air transport. A high level of aviation
safety is achieved in different ways, for example, employing the supervision of
national and international institutions, through the legislative, control,
registration, analysis, and proposal of solutions; training; selection of
staff; special procedures, etc. These precautions have to solve both safety and
security concerns. In some cases, they overlap with each other in terms of the
effect of the actions of the aircraft crew on the passengers and vice versa.
However,
assessing the probability of a pilot's failure, depending on the factors of the
working environment, requires the development of an integrated methodology for
assessing its performance to evaluate the relationship between the noise
sources and the flight duration. Further research aims to extend the analysis
of pilot reliability to different types of aircraft engines, noise sources, and
flight durations, and to demonstrate the relationship between the noise level
and exposure and pilot performance, that is, aviation safety.
The
aircraft engine manufacturer follows the rules determined for environmental
noise pollution (for example, in the case of airports), which results in the
need for modern passenger aircraft engines to have an outlet nozzle adjusted
using the required design intervention. The final purpose of this modification
is for better dispersion of the noise trail into the surroundings, and thus,
the avoidance of a more concentrated trace, such as is the case of military
aircraft, which are not the subject of such design modifications. The result is
a significant difference in the generation of noise from civilian and military
aircraft.
4.
CONCLUSION
The
dynamic development of worldwide passenger and cargo air traffic in recent
decades was possible due to the application of a wide range of operationally
reliable, economically effective, and environmental-friendly aircraft engines.
Although many design modifications are being made to reduce the external noise
generated by the structure and engines of aircraft, the problem of the
perception of the noise of pilots, especially during long-term exposure
(intercontinental flights), remains relevant, which is related to air safety.
Modern
jet engines are characterised by excellent technical
parameters and very favourable operational results.
They integrate a high engine thrust and operational efficiency, which is
presented in the form of low-level specific fuel consumption.
There
is a growing acceptance of the need to address low-frequency noise caused by
aircraft operations. There are no acceptable limits. Impacts on the health and
reliability of occupational exposure to low-frequency noise are areas where
further research is urgently needed, especially in management activities such
as pilotage.
Air
transport is almost entirely dependent on fossil fuels as a source of energy.
It is the only sector in which greenhouse gas emissions have steadily increased
over the past 20 years. Today, these emissions from transport already exceed
the 1990 level, which is considered as a reference year for most countries of
the European Economic Area, by around one third. One positive aspect is that,
according to the statistical data, the fuel consumption per one seat in new
aircraft is 70% lower than in older aircraft. Technological innovation could
lead to increasing fuel efficiency by approximately 35-45% by 2025 and by 60%
by 2050, compared to the present state. The optimisation
of air traffic management can reduce emissions by approx. 10% per flight.
Furthermore, the European Union is proposing ambitious targets determined to
create a sustainable and competitive air transport industry by 2050. For
example, it addresses the goals to reduce the carbon dioxide emissions by 75%
per passenger-kilometre, to reduce the NOx
emissions by 90%, and to reduce the noise by 65% compared to 2000, by 2050
[38].
Acknowledgements
This publication was
supported by: APVV 15-0351, VEGA 1/0110/18, KEGA 019TUKE-4/2020, VEGA 1/0473/17, KEGA
006TUKE - 4/2020, University Science Park TECHNICOM for Innovation Application Supported by Knowledge
Technology - Phase 1, ITMS: 26220220182,
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Received 11.08.2020; accepted in revised form 09.11.2020
Scientific
Journal of Silesian University of Technology. Series Transport is licensed
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