Article
citation information:
Macioszek, E. Essential techniques for
fastening loads in road transport. Scientific
Journal of Silesian University of Technology. Series Transport. 2021, 110, 97-104. ISSN: 0209-3324. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20858/sjsutst.2021.110.8.
Elżbieta MACIOSZEK[1]
ESSENTIAL
TECHNIQUES FOR FASTENING LOADS IN ROAD TRANSPORT
Summary. During the
transportation of goods, damage and destruction of the transported cargo
constitute a very large part of the damage. The most common direct cause of
damage is an improper arrangement and securing of the transported load. An
improperly secured load may pose a threat to the transporters and bystanders.
Incorrectly secured loads can fall from the vehicle, obstruct movement, and
cause injury or death. In addition, improperly secured loads can cause injury
or death in heavy braking or a collision. The way the load is distributed and
secured on the vehicle can negatively affect driving behaviour, making it
difficult to control the vehicle. This article presents the conditions related
to the transport of loads in road transport, describes both the forces that act
on the load during the journey of a vehicle and the most important techniques
for securing loads in road transport.
Keywords: transport, load, transport safety, load
securing techniques, forces acting on load
1. INTRODUCTION
The organisation of cargo transport using road
transport requires considering various transport technologies [2, 4, 5].
Choosing the right type of cargo transport is a complex process related to the
appropriate organisation of cargo transport [6, 8].
In the process of transport, the load and its
components should be secured against slipping, overturning, rolling and
shifting due to vibrations in any direction by, for example, locking, restraint
or friction. This protection is intended to protect people involved in loading
works, vehicle drivers, other road users, drivers, pedestrians, cyclists, as well
as the load and the vehicle itself. Transported loads should be positioned in
the vehicle in such a way that they do not injure people, cause vehicle
instability during transport, and do not change their position or move in the
vehicle or fall out of the vehicle.
Guidelines for the safe
securing of loads are based on the laws of physics related to friction,
dynamics and strength of materials. However, the mere application of these
rights may prove very difficult in practice. Solutions for securing loads, defining
the forces acting on the load and the strength of load-bearing structures,
requirements for fastening and accessories are included in the following
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and European standards
(EN):
- EN 12195-1 - calculation
of clamping forces,
- ISO 1496, ISO 1161 - ISO -
in the field of containers,
- EN 12195-2 - in the field
of cargo securing belts,
- EN 12195-4 - in the field
of steel fastening ropes,
- EN 12195-3 - in the field
of lashing chains,
- EN 12640 - for fixing points,
- EN 12642 - in the field of
cargo securing on-road vehicles, construction of vehicle boxes for the
transport of goods,
- EN 12641-1 - for swap
bodies for vehicles and vehicles for the carriage of goods (Part I concerning
the minimum sheet metal requirements),
- EN 12641-2 - for swap
bodies and vehicles for their carriage (Part II regarding curtain sheets),
- EN 283 - for testing swap
bodies,
- EN 284 - concerning the dimensions and
general requirements of class C swap bodies,
- ISO 27955 - in the scope
of requirements and tests for cargo securing in passenger cars and multipurpose
vehicles,
- ISO 27956 - in the scope
of requirements and tests for cargo securing in vans.
The
international guidelines for cargo securing in road transport are based on the
European standard EN 12195-1: 2010 and are not legally binding. However, they provide many
necessary frameworks and practical information, instructions and tips to enable participants of
the transport chain to achieve conditions of safe loading following legal requirements and
standard. International carriers should bear in mind that individual countries
have specific requirements about cargo securing, which are not covered
in these guidelines. It is therefore always necessary to inquire about the
specific requirements in force with the competent authorities of the country
concerned. In the case of transport of dangerous goods, international legal
requirements are laid down in the ADR agreement. According to ADR, the securing
of loads is considered sufficient if it complies with the European standard EN
12195-1: 2010. Improper placement or fastening of the load leads to road
accidents, therefore, the load should be secured in such a way that it does
not endanger the safety of road traffic, human health and life, property and
the environment.
The
main recommendations regarding the method of securing loads in road transport
are included in the Polish Regulation of the Minister of Infrastructure of 25
January 2018 on the method of cargo transport [7] and they state that:
- the cargo space should be
kept clean,
- the cargo should be placed
on the floor of the cargo area of the vehicle in a way that ensures its
stability,
- the centre of gravity of
the load should be as low as possible and closest to the longitudinal axis of
the vehicle,
- cargo placed on the floor
of the cargo area of a vehicle of categories N2, N3, O3 and O4 should be
secured in such a way as to prevent its tilting, displacement or overturning
and in such a way as to balance the forces resulting from acceleration or
braking: in the direction of travel: 80% of the load weight; laterally: 50% of
the load weight; in the opposite direction of travel: 50% of the load weight,
- the load is secured using
at least one of the following methods: locking, blocking (local or total),
lashing with straight lashings, top-over lashing,
- the distribution and
securing of cargo should be checked during each loading, partial unloading or
reloading, and after sudden braking or another event that may negatively affect
the securing of the cargo,
- the arrangement and
securing of cargo should be checked: during each loading, partial unloading or
reloading, as well as after sudden braking or any other event that could
negatively affect the securing,
- it is allowed to secure
the cargo with lashing straps having transverse cuts less than 10% of the
cross-section,
- it is allowed to mark
elements of cargo securing and securing with minor damages, provided that the
marking is legible.
This article presents the conditions related to the
transport of loads, describes both the forces that act on the load during the
journey of the vehicle and the methods of securing loads in road transport.
2. THE FORCES ACTING ON LOADED VEHICLE
The force of
gravity acting on the load is
- inertia force (when braking),
- centrifugal force (on the
horizontal curve to the right),
- centrifugal force (on a
horizontal curve to the left),
- the inertial force
(acceleration response).
Each
vehicle has a certain permissible total weight. It is not allowed to exceed the
specified values for the weight of the load. Penalties for exceeding the load
capacity of the vehicle in Polish conditions range from PLN 500 to PLN 5,000.
Before starting the transport, the weight of the transported load is
determined. In the case of liquids, it should be considered that not every one
litre of liquid weighs one kilogram (for example, 1 litre of sulfuric acid in a
96-98% solution weighs about
The
centre of gravity of the transported load also plays an important role during
transport. The higher the load centre of gravity, the more likely it is to tip
over when subjected to horizontal forces. If the centre of gravity of the load
is in the vertical plane close to the edge of the load, the load will tend to
tip over towards that edge. For heavy loads, the centre of gravity can be an
important factor in positioning and securing the load on the vehicle to ensure
proper weight distribution. The higher the centre of gravity of the
vehicle-load combination is, the more likely it is to overturn.
3.
TECHNIQUES FOR FASTENING LOADS IN ROAD TRANSPORT
Proper cargo securing plays a very important role in the transport of
goods. If the load is improperly transported, it may be damaged. It should be
added that the person ordering the transport of the shipment to a logistics
company or intermediary is responsible for the correct packing of the goods and
possibly if required by the size or type of shipment, for placing it on a
pallet. The basic methods of securing loads include:
- block mounting,
- locking,
- top-over lashings,
- fastening with straight
lashings,
- combinations of the
methods mentioned.
Blocking is a type of cargo securing, the elements of which are based on
fixed elements and rigid structures of the load box. The load is immobilised
directly or indirectly by filling the voids between the load and the fixed
elements of the load box, which in practice blocks all horizontal movements of
the load. The spaces between the cargo and fixed parts of the cargo box are to
be reduced to a minimum, especially those between the cargo and the headboard.
If possible, the load should be leaned against the front wall.
Correct securing of
cargo with the use of immobilising devices requires tight stowage of the packages by leaning them against
the stationary components of the load box, as well as by using stowage
materials between packages. If the cargo does not completely fill the spaces
between the headboards and the sidewalls and is not stably fastened to the
cargo box, the voids must be filled with stowage materials creating wedge
forces, ensuring that the
cargo is effectively immobilised. These forces must fully correspond to the weight of the load. The
most frequently used dunnage materials to fill gaps between the load box and
the load include [1]:
- pallets - if the empty
space exceeds the height of the euro-pallet (
- disposable and reusable
airbags. The airbags are filled with compressed air, which is usually taken
from the installation of a truck. They are easy to install, and airbag
suppliers are required to provide instructions for use and recommendations for
the correct pressure and load-bearing capacity. Airbags prevent damage to the
cargo, however, it should be remembered that under no circumstances should they
be used as a stowage material that rests against the front door or moving
surfaces or partition elements,
- a framework strut - use of
framework struts is applicable in a situation where there are large voids
between the load and the locking elements. These frames must have very strong
wooden struts. The spreader frames must be positioned so that the spreaders are
at right angles to the load to be secured so that the pressure exerted by the
load is better able to withstand,
- diagonal and transverse
strips - immobilisation in the longitudinal direction through the use of
diagonal strips is a good method of direct block fastening This method of cargo
locking is particularly effective in containers, as the diagonal slats can be
leaned against the stable corner posts of the container. Diagonal and cross rails
can similarly be used as a material to fill empty spaces between loads,
- threshold and plate
fastening - applicable if the layers of the stacked packages differ in height.
This lashing fixes the base of the top cargo layer. It can also use materials
that increase part of the load, for example, pallets. In case the package is
not stable and rigid enough for the sill fixture, the same blocking effect can
be obtained by using pallets or boards. Depending on the stiffness of the
packages, a locking model with a small or large locking surface can be
obtained,
- wooden slats nailed to the
load box - in the load box, which has a strong, good-quality wooden floor, the
base of the load can be secured with wooden slats nailed directly to the floor,
- pointed wedges and wedge
bearings - are used to block loads of cylindrical shape. If top-over lashings
are not used, the height of the block wedge should be at least R/3 (that is,
one-third of the cylinder radius). If, on the other hand, these wedges are used
with top-over lashings, a wedge of
- sharp-ended wedges,
usually with an angle of about 15° - their main function is primarily to
keep the cargo of a round shape in place during unloading and loading. Due to
the small angle, the wedge usually automatically locks during pressure and does
not move. It should be noted that sharp wedges are not used to secure the load,
- block wedges with an angle
of about 45° - are used to prevent shifting of rows of goods with a round
cross-section, they must rest on the load box fastening devices. Also, they
must be immobilised against the floor by placing angular strips on the last two
roles and tied around them with lashings,
- wedge bearing - with the
use of adjustable fastening cross members, that is, chains or screws, two long
wedges are immobilised. The transverse attachment must be positioned so that
there is a minimum distance of
- lashings - A lashing is an
immobilising element such as a chain, wire rope or lashing strap. It is used to
bind cargo elements or to bind the cargo to the loading platform or securing
elements. Lashings must be placed so that they are in contact only with the
load to be secured and the lashing points,
- top-over lashing - this is
a method of securing the load against sliding or tipping utilising the top over
lashing. The lashings are tied around the top of the load. This method of
attachment may be used to press the load against the floor platform if there
are no sidelocks at the base of the load. It should be remembered that friction
does not guarantee 100% immobilisation, because during the transport of the
load there are vibrations and shocks which cause the load to move, therefore,
lashing straps or chains should always be used even when the friction is high,
- loop lashing - it is used
to wrap the load with a loop and attach it to the hook on one side of the body.
This prevents the load from shifting to the opposite side of the load platform.
These lashings are installed in opposite and even pairs, which allows for even
distribution of forces. The use of lashings in pairs prevents the load from
tipping over, while the use of two pairs of lashings prevents the load from
twisting out of the longitudinal plane. The ability of the loop lashings to
immobilize the load depends, among other things, on the strength of the lashing
points,
- lashing with straight
lashings - if the load is equipped with special lashing hooks with a strength
corresponding to the lashing strength, it is possible to directly attach the
load to the transport platform,
- chain lashings - two
factors determine the strength of the chain: the quality of the material from
which it is made and the thickness of the links. The chain used should be
properly selected for the transported load. Reinforcements or bevels can be
used on sharp edges and corners. This prevents damage to the chains. Chain
lashings should not be used when tied in a knot or connected by bolts. The
edges of the cargo, as well as the lashings, must be protected against damage
and abrasion with protective covers. If the lashings show signs of damage, they
should be repaired at the manufacturer's or replaced with new ones. The
below-mentioned types of damage qualify the defective elements to be replaced:
for chains: surface cracks, elongation by more than 3%, wear exceeding 10% of
the nominal diameter; for connecting elements and tensioners: deformation,
cracks, wear and corrosion. It is advisable to check all links before using
chains. They can be used only with the use of appropriate pullers and
tensioners with a safe working load as indicated by the manufacturer,
- non-slip mat made of
rubber granules is sometimes used as an additional element to prevent the load
from moving on the loading platform. The mat is placed under the load, which
increases its friction by pressing the weight of the load. A good quality
anti-slip mat can increase the safety of the cargo by 60%, which together with
the use of straps or chains, ensures high safety during road transport. It
should be observed that the mere use of mats does not entitle the use of belts.
The use of the mat is simple and quick, and it effectively increases the safety
of the transported cargo.
In
turn, the irregularities in the securing of loads can be classified into one of
the following groups [3]:
- minor irregularity:
defects of minor importance occur when the load has been properly secured, but
unsafety indications may appear,
- serious deficiency: a
serious deficiency exists when the load is not sufficiently secured and the
load or parts of it can shift significantly or tilt,
- dangerous irregularity: a
dangerous deficiency occurs when road safety is directly jeopardized by the
risk of losing the load or parts of it or by a hazard directly derived from the
load, or of immediate danger to persons.
4. CONCLUSIONS
The
transport activity in the field of road transport is associated with several
that must not be neglected to ensure high quality and safety of services
provided to customers. Therefore, securing the load during transport plays a
very important role. A vehicle is prepared for transport when the load is
correctly placed on the floor of the vehicle's load box and the load in the
vehicle is properly secured. The first condition determines the axle load of
the vehicle, and the second condition is related to the safety of transport and
protection against human losses.
The
issues related to the securing of loads presented in this article indicate the
existence of many factors that may have negative impacts on the safety of
transport. Securing the load is required regardless of the weight of the load.
The load must be arranged and secured in such a way that even when braking
sharply or passing an obstacle, its position will not shift. Each load will
move if the forces exerted by the load as a result of vehicle movement exceed
the resistance forces exerted by the environment. Usually, in Polish
conditions, load-securing techniques are used to secure loads during transport,
as described in this article.
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Received 20.06.2020; accepted in revised form 09.10.2020
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Journal of Silesian University of Technology. Series Transport is licensed
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