Article
citation information:
Sęk, J. Innovative technologies
in low-emission transport. Scientific
Journal of Silesian University of Technology. Series Transport. 2020, 107, 165-175. ISSN: 0209-3324. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20858/sjsutst.2020.107.12.
Joanna
SĘK[1]
INNOVATIVE
TECHNOLOGIES IN LOW-EMISSION TRANSPORT
Summary. This paper discusses the legal framework of
electromobility in the European Union, including Directive 2014/94/EU. The main
issues implementing this directive into Polish legislation were discussed (for
example, Dz. U. z 2018 r., poz. 317). The Additional European Parliament
recommendations included in the resolution of 25 October 2018 were also
presented. The second part of the article contains information on
electromobility in road transport, for example, the number of new vehicles
registered in 2018 according to types of fuel. In addition, the main goals of
the AFI directive for maritime and inland transport were presented, together
with examples of innovative solutions that meet the major objectives of
electromobility and sustainable development.
Keywords: European transport policy, low-emissions
vehicles, alternative fuels, innovations
1. INTRODUCTION
In 2001, the European Commission
issued the first document (White Paper) [22] addressing the issues of the EU
transport policy. It pointed out the need to change the share of individual
transport modes through, including support of maritime and inland waterway
transport.
Five years later, the White Paper
underwent a mid-term review, which added tasks related to countering traffic
congestion [3, 12].
New strategic goals were included in
the next edition of the White Paper issued by the European Commission in 2011,
according to which by 2030, 30% of road freight transport over distances greater
than 300 km should be transferred to other means of transport, for example,
rail or water transport, and by 2050 it should be over 50% of this type of
transport [23]. Moreover, a 40% reduction in gas emissions from international
maritime transport (by 2050) was also recommended; it is similarly proposed
that by 2050, 40% of fuels used in air transport should be low-emission. In
addition, a 50% reduction in the number of conventional cars by 2030 was agreed
upon for urban transport, and by 2050 for decommissioning.
In 2016, the European Commission
published a communication [4] proposing means to accelerate decarbonisation in
transport and achieve zero emissions in the EU, which is in line with the
provisions of the Paris Climate Conference in 2015.
2. LEGISLATIVE SOLUTIONS REGARDING ALTERNATIVE
FUELS IN THE EU
2.1. Directive 2014/94/UE
One of the most important activities
at the European level aimed at intensifying the work on the implementation of
alternative fuels in transport was the establishment of the Directive
2014/94/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 October 2014 on
the deployment of alternative fuels infrastructure (directive AFI) [5]. The
main goal of the directive was to define a uniform framework enabling the
development of alternative fuels infrastructure networks, thereby making it
possible to reduce the use of crude oil in transport, and thus reduce the
negative impact of transport on the environment. The AFI Directive also defines
alternative fuel definitions (Fig. 1), minimum requirements for the expansion
of, for example, charging points for electric vehicles or refuelling points for
natural gas LNG and CNG, that is, requirements for alternative fuels
infrastructure and technical specifications for these points.
Importantly, the AIF Directive is
not only limited to road transport but presupposes the future possibility of
uninterrupted movement of seagoing and inland vessels or alternative fuel
vehicles throughout the EU.
Due to the fact that the scope of
work envisaged in the directive is very wide, it forces undertakings for
various types of fuels. In the case of building the new infrastructure, it was
assumed that the development would first concern urban agglomeration areas and
basic areas belonging to the Trans-European Transport Network (TEN-T). The
TEN-T guidelines also require that inland and seaports, airports and core
network roads that are part of the TEN-T core network allow access to
alternative fuels.
The AFI Directive assumed the
obligation to transpose provisions into the law of the Member States by 18th
November 2016, however, transposition into Polish provisions was established by
the Act of 11th January 2018 on electromobility and alternative
fuels (hereinafter referred to as the Act on electromobility) [1].
Fig. 1. Alternative fuels referred to directive
2014/94/UE [5]
2.2. Act of 11th January
2018 on electromobility and alternative fuels
The Act on electromobility
specifies:
1) rules for the development
and operation of infrastructure for the use of alternative fuels in transport,
including technical requirements for the infrastructure;
2) obligations of public
entities regarding the development of alternative fuels infrastructure;
3) information obligations in
the field of alternative fuels;
4) conditions for the
operation of clean transport zones;
5) national policy framework
for the development of alternative fuels infrastructure and the manner of their
implementation.
In accordance with art. 16, the Act
on electromobility imposes on the President of Office of Technical Inspection
(UDT) new obligations, including:
-
issuing
opinions on the compliance of technical documentation of the designed charging
station with the requirements;
-
conducting
technical tests of charging stations and charging points, which are part of the
charging infrastructure of public road transport in the field of safe
operation, repair and modernisation. The tests are carried out [1]:
o
before
putting the charging station into service or the charging infrastructure of
public road transport;
o
each
time in the event of repair or modernisation of such a station or
infrastructure, including consisting in increasing the number of charging
points, or changing the place of installing a charging point in this station or
infrastructure;
-
issuing
decisions to suspend the operation of a charging point if it does not meet the
technical requirements as a result of technical tests;
-
UDT
also maintains the Alternative Fuels Infrastructure Register (eipa.udt.gov.pl),
which is a public register providing information on electric and natural gas
vehicles to users, including the location of the natural gas station or
charging station (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. CNG/LNG loading and refuelling bases in
Poland [21]
2.3. New initiatives for the
directive 2014/94/EU
In November 2017, Communication from
the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic
and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions – Towards the
broadest use of alternative fuels - an Action Plan on Alternative Fuels
Infrastructure under Article 10(6) of Directive 2014/94/EU, including the
assessment of national policy frameworks under Article 10(2) of Directive
2014/94/EU was issued. In this communication, Parliament called for a more
ambitious approach to energy from renewable sources in transport and for
additional incentives to introduce sustainable alternative fuels for those
modes of transport that currently have no alternative to conventional fuel.
Following this communication, in
October 2018, the European Parliament adopted a resolution calling on the
Commission to amend Directive 2014/94/EU on the development of alternative
fuels infrastructure and to focus on its proper implementation [6]. The
communication states that transport is the only major economic sector in the
European Union in which greenhouse gas emissions have increased since 1990;
whereas this sector is responsible for 23% of CO2 emissions, and
this percentage is still growing. Road transport is responsible for almost 75%
of all energy used in transport and is the source of almost 73% of greenhouse
gas emissions in this sector. There is also a steady increase in traffic
related to the increase in movement and volume of goods transported in the EU,
as well as increased mobility of people, which, as projected for 2030, will
have an impact on climate change, air quality and energy consumption as well as
infrastructure. Reducing the emissions of road transport using sustainable
alternative fuels requires a flexible approach, which means that different
alternative fuels may be needed in different segments of the car market [6].
In addition, shipping is related to
80% of global trade volume and advocates for 3% of global greenhouse gas
emissions, contributing to air pollution near coastal areas and ports. Faced
with the significant contribution of shipping to the global transport market,
the gradual acceptance of alternative fuels in shipping will have a significant
positive environmental impact.
In point 8 of the resolution, the
importance of sustainable urban planning, shifting from private use to shared
and public use of transport and calling on the Commission and the Member States
to particularly turn their attention to the deployment of alternative fuels
infrastructure for collective and public transport services, such as buses,
trams, trains, shared cars, taxis and minivans, as well as for bicycles,
scooters and motorcycles was underlined [8, 10, 17, 18]. Furthermore, the
deployment of alternative fuels infrastructure in urban and suburban areas,
(with priority to those where air quality is poor) was also encouraged [16].
3. ELECTROMOBILITY IN DIFFERENT MODES OF
TRANSPORT
3.1. Electromobility in road transport
In road
transport, according to the Directive 2014/94/EU or Polish Act of
electromobility, it is important to specify the different types of vehicles,
especially electric and hybrid vehicles:
-
electric vehicle means a motor vehicle equipped
with a powertrain containing at least one non-peripheral electric machine as an
energy converter with an electric rechargeable energy storage system, which can
be recharged externally [5];
-
hybrid vehicle - a motor vehicle within the
meaning of art. 2 point 33 of the Act of 20 June 1997 - Road Traffic Law, with
a diesel-electric drive, in which electricity is accumulated by connecting to
an external power source [1].
It is
worth noting that hybrid vehicles, even though they use electricity to drive,
does not belong to the group of electric vehicles.
In 2019,
the European Automobile Manufacturers’ Association (ACEA) published a
report which contains a variety range of information/statistics about
alternative fuel vehicles, for example, car market by fuel type (Tab. 1 and Fig. 3), the average CO2
emissions of new cars and infrastructure availability.
Tab. 1
Registrations of new
cars in the EU28, by fuel type in 2014-2018 [in units] [20]
|
|
2014 |
2015 |
2016 |
2017 |
2018 |
|
Petrol |
5,358,452 |
6,036,564 |
6,800,116 |
7,563,104 |
8,532,104 |
|
Diesel |
6,599,462 |
7,039,611 |
7,175,630 |
6,617,051 |
5,406,574 |
|
Electrically-chargeable |
69,958 |
148,027 |
155,634 |
218,083 |
301,581 |
|
- Battery electric |
37,517 |
59,165 |
63,479 |
97,667 |
149,737 |
|
- Plug-in hybrids |
32,441 |
88,862 |
92,155 |
120,416 |
151,844 |
|
Hybrid electric |
176,525 |
218,755 |
278,729 |
426,769 |
578,620 |
|
Fuel cell |
38 |
176 |
123 |
253 |
266 |
|
Natural gas (CNG) |
97,214 |
78,511 |
57,609 |
49,553 |
65,092 |
|
Other (LPG + E85) |
141,452 |
140,321 |
118,430 |
156,710 |
164,310 |
Fig. 3. Market share of new cars in the
EU, by fuel type in 2018 [20]
The ACEA report, Tab. 1 and Fig. 3
present that [20]:
-
2.0%
of all cars sold in 2018 were electrically-chargeable (+1.4 % since 2014);
-
3.8%
of new passenger cars in the EU last year were hybrid electric (+2.4 % over the
last five years);
-
0.4%
of all cars sold in 2018 were natural gas-powered (-0.4 % since 2014);
-
fuel
cell vehicles currently account for a negligible share of total EU car sales.
The presented statistics show that
the use of alternative fuel cars is still not acceptable. The availability of
alternative fuel vehicles is quite limited in comparison to conventional fuel
vehicles, for example, in 2017 only 19 battery models of electric cars and 25
models of plug-in hybrid vehicles were available for sale in Europe in contrast
to more than 417 models of vehicles with combustion engines [20].
European Parliament and the Council
show their recommendations about charging electric vehicles. When charging
electric vehicles at charging points, it should be proper (if it is rational
from a technical and financial point of view) to use intelligent measuring
systems to contribute to the stability of power systems in such a way that the
batteries be charged from the network during hours with low overall demand for
electricity, and to enable secure and flexible data transfer. The use of
intelligent metering systems optimises charging for the benefit of the power
system and consumers.
The Polish law in the field of
public transport services demands the share of zero-emission buses to be at
least 30% of their fleet in the local government unit (excluding communes and
countries) whose population does not exceed 50,000.
3.2. Electromobility in maritime and
inland waterway transport
In inland waterway transport, the
main role in the field of alternative fuel play (based on the AFI directive),
the Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine and the Danube Commission as
experts. The AFI directive recommends cooperation between both Commissions and
the European Commission for the development of alternative fuels
infrastructure.
An additional deadline has been set
by the directive AFI for maritime and inland ports for the construction of a
coherent network of LNG refuelling points in the Member States, the cut-off
date is 31 December 2025 (for maritime ports) and 31 December 2030 (for inland
ports).
LNG refuelling points include LNG
terminals, tanks, mobile containers, bunkers and inland barges. All decisions
on the locations of the LNG refuelling points at ports would be based on a
cost-benefit analysis including an examination of the environmental benefits.
LNG, CNG or electricity are not the
whole types of alternative fuels. Another one is biofuel [15], which was
connected with inland waterway vessels for the first time in March 2019. The
first inland vessel that runs fully on 100% sustainable biofuel is called
For-Ever. It is an inland barge dedicated to transporting Heineken export beer
from a brewery in Zoeterwoude to the deep-sea terminals in the Port of
Rotterdam [19].
A consortium of companies; GoodFuels, Reinplus Fiwado Bunker (biofuel
supplier) and Combined Cargo Terminals (CCT) informed that it was possible to
reduce the carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from engines up to 90% in
inland waterway vessel. The local emission of CO2, nitrogen oxides
(NOx) and particulate matter (PM) will be measured along the way.
4. INNOVATIONS IN ELECTROMOBILITY
4.1. Modern technology in the
production and storage of electricity for transport
Presently, according to new more
restrictive requirements relating to gaseous and particulate pollutant emission
limits in all kinds of transport, all users are looking for new techniques and
technologies to apply on their vessels, vehicles, etc., to fulfil the technical
requirements as quickly and cheaply as possible [9].
In maritime inland waterway
transport, there are few possible technologies, which can be implemented on
vessels to reduce emissions and reduce the negative effects on the environment.
One of the solutions is to use the full electric power supply for vessels.
According to this concept, all parts and equipment of the ship are powered by
electricity from batteries, which after being depleted can be charged by the on
vessel/on land generator or be replaced. It is possible to charge batteries
from the wharf during, for example, the unloading of the ship. Such equipped
unit would not cause the emission of harmful substances into the atmosphere
(NOx, SOx, CO, etc.).
This solution was implemented
in 2018 on two 111-metres ferries, the Tycho Brahe and Aurora (Fig. 4), which were
converted to operate by battery power. The conversion to electrical power has
resulted in a huge drop in carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. According
to the shipowner, this complex project took less than four years to complete
with a financial scope of around SEK 300 million (USD 33.1 million) [24], and
no other environmental investment or technical improvements would have achieved
comparable emissions reductions [7].
Fig. 4. Aurora ferry [24]
Another innovation, which can easily
be implemented on inland and sea-going vessels is the modern energy storage
called Skoonbox. It is a mobile battery for different purposes, for example, to
the industry, different kinds of events or as a battery for electric fueled
vessels; it can offer zero-emission propulsion. The Skoonbox exchangeable
battery is the size of a 20-foot container (Fig. 5). The certificate for marine
applications had been issued to the battery box.
Fig. 5. Skoonbox [19]
Skoonbox can similarly be used on
land, for example, as a shore power supply for vessels; it can reduce both the
emissions and the harmful noise caused by inland/maritime ships [7] especially
in ports. Another advantage after full mobility (the customer can order the box
wherever he/she wants) is the possibility to design the Skoonbox directly with
the customer order.
Currently, the use of electric power
supply by the freight fleet of inland waterway vessels is not possible in
long-distance relations [11], however, the use of replaceable batteries on the
ship as a fuel may, in the long run, reduce the emission of harmful substances
into the atmosphere, for example, on waterways located in cities.
Another example of the
implementation of a modern solution in the field of electricity production is
the possibility of generating electricity using sea waves. The main product is
called the OE Buoy (Fig. 6) [14]. It is a wave energy converter, which absorbs
energy from ocean waves to generate green, sustainable electricity.
Fig. 6. OE 35 buoy [13]
The prototype of the buoy, OE 35
buoy, was constructed in US shipyard Vigor in Portland (Oregon) in spring 2019.
The $12 million project was funded by the U.S. Department of Energy’s
Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, along with the Sustainable
Energy Authority of Ireland. The wave device – dimensions: 125 feet long
(38 m), 68 feet tall (21 m), and 59 feet wide (18 m) [14]. The buoy is shaped
like an “L” with a long open chamber that sits below the waterline
and a turbine above the water. As water enters the open chamber it forces air
upward, which turns the turbine to generate electricity.
The buoy is set to be released off
the coast of Oregon where it will make a 25-day journey to the U.S. Navy Wave
Energy Test Site in Kaneohe Bay Hawaii for 12 months for full-scale sea trials.
The 826‐ton OE Buoy has a potential rated
capacity of up to 1.25 MW in electrical power production giving it the ability
to support a range of exciting uses, for example, offshore fish farming,
off-grid applications for remote island communities as well as utility-quality
electricity supply. It can be used to power supply for cities, harbours, etc.
According to data presented by Ocean Energy, each deployed commercial device
could reduce CO2 emissions by over 3,6005 tons per year [14].
5. CONCLUSIONS
The information contained in the
article regarding the applied requirements for the implementation of
alternative fuels infrastructure in the EU and their transposition into Polish
law has allowed the issue of electromobility to be presented in a new light.
The examples of innovations featured
in this article were aimed at presenting modern solutions used on a large
scale, for example, in the short- and long-range transport, industry, etc.
The provisions of the EU and Polish
law relating to electromobility, the AFI directive applies to almost every
branch of transport. However, it should be noted that they require a number of
investments related to, for example, the development, implementation and
commissioning of a number of infrastructure elements such as charging points,
etc.
Therefore, a constant expansion of
the infrastructure for alternative fuels should be expected while taking into
account the priority modes of transport, for example, road transport in the
medium- and short-term, where the share of vehicles fueled with alternative
fuels is constantly increasing, for example, inland waterway transport in the
long-term.
References
1.
Act of 11 January 2018 on electromobility and alternative fuels.
Dz. U. z 2018 r., poz. 317.
2.
Bio Energy
International. „First inland vessel on 100 percent sustainable biofuel
for Heineken”. Available at: https://bioenergyinternational.com/
storage-logistics/first-inland-vessel-on-100-percent-sustainable-biofuel-for-heineken.
3.
Communication
from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament - Keep Europe
moving - Sustainable mobility for our continent - Mid-term review of the European
Commission’s 2001 Transport White. COM/2006/0314 final. Brussels,
22.06.2006.
4.
Communication
from The Commission to The European Parliament, The Council, The European
Economic And Social Committee And The Committee Of The Regions. A European
Strategy for Low-Emission Mobility COM(2016) 501 final. Brussels, 20.07.2016.
5.
Directive
2014/94/EU of The European Parliament and of The Council of 22 October on the
deployment of alternative fuels infrastructure.
6.
European
Parliament resolution of 25 October 2018 on deployment of infrastructure for
alternative fuels in the European Union: time to act! (2018/2023(INI)).
7.
For
Sea Ferries. „About For Sea”. Available at: https://www.forseaferries.com/about-forsea/about-us/.
8.
Gopinath
V., G. Selvakumar, G. Selvakumar, R.
Periyasamy. 2019. „Performance and emission characteristics of preheating
corn oil methyl ester in CI Engine”. Mechanika
25(5): 413-418. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5755/j01.mech.25.5.23135. ISSN:
1392-1207.
9.
Jacyna M., M. Izdebski, E. Szczepański, P. Gołda. 2018.
„The task assignment of vehicles for a production company”. Symmetry 10(11): 1-19. DOI:
https://doi.org/10.3390/sym10110551.
10. Jacyna M., M. Wasiak, K. Lewczuk, G.
Karoń. 2017. “Noise and environmental pollution from transport:
decisive problems in developing ecologically efficient transport
systems”. Journal of
Vibroengineering 19: 5639-5655. DOI: doi.org/10.21595/jve.2017.19371.
11. Łosiewicz Zbigniew, Magdalena Kaup, Waldemar
Mironiuk. 2018. „Problematyka
wyboru napędu śródlądowych jednostek
pływających w aspekcie efektywności, bezpieczeństwa i
ekologii. [In Polish: „Problematics of the selection of propulsion of
inland waterway vessels in the aspect of efficiency, safety and
ecology”]. Prace Naukowe Politechniki Warszawskiej. Transport 121:
223-232. ISSN 1230-9265.
12. Muneera C.P, Krishnamurthy
Karuppanagounder. 2018. “Economic impact of traffic congestion-
estimation and challenges”. European
Transport \ Trasporti Europei. Issue 68. Paper no 5. ISSN 1825-3997.
13. Ocean Energy. „OceanEnergy OE35”.
Available at: https://oceanenergy.ie/oe35/.
14. Ocean Energy. „OE USA deployment at test site in
Hawaii”. Available at: https://oceanenergy.ie/oe-usa-press-release/.
15. Panchuk M., S. Kryshtopа, A.
Sladkowski, L. Kryshtopa, N. Klochko, T. Romanyshyn, A. Panchuk, I. Mandryk.
2019. “Efficiency of Production of Motor Biofuels for Water and Land
Transport”. Nase More 66(3)
Supplement: 6-12.
16. Potkány M., M. Hlatká, M.
Debnár, J. Hanzl. “Comparison of the lifecycle cost structure of
electric and diesel buses”. Nase
More 65(49): 270-275.
17. Pulawski G., D. Szpica. 2015. “The
modelling of operation of the compression ignition engine powered with diesel
fuel with LPG admixture”. Mechanika
21(6): 500-505. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5755/j01.mech.21.6.11147. ISSN:
1392-1207.
18. Schmidt Marie, Stefan Voss. 2017.
„Advanced systems in public transport”. Public Transport 9(1-2) Special Issue: 3-6.
19. SKOON. „Battery Sharing”. Available at: https://skoon.world/services/battery-sharing/.
20. The European Automobile Manufacturers’
Association (ACEA). „Making the transition to zero-emission mobility.
2019 progress report”. Available at: https://www.acea.be/publications/article/making-the-transition-to-zero-emission-mobility-2019-progress-report.
21. Urząd Dozoru
Technicznego. „Ewidencja Infrastruktury Paliw Alternatywnych”.
[In Polish: Technical inspection authority. „Alternative Fuels
Infrastructure Register”]. Available at: https://eipa.udt.gov.pl/.
22. White Paper – European transport
policy for 2010: time to decide. COM(2001) 370 final. Brussels, 12.9.2001.
23. White Paper. Roadmap to a Single European
Transport Area – Towards a competitive and resource efficient transport
system COM/2011/0144 final. Brussels, 28.03.2011.
24.
World
Maritime News. „HH Ferries Launches Battery-Powered Ferry Duo”.
Available at: https://worldmaritimenews.com/archives/264404/hh-ferries-launches-battery-powered-ferry-duo/.
Received 08.03.2020; accepted in revised form 09.05.2020
Scientific
Journal of Silesian University of Technology. Series Transport is licensed
under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License