Article
citation information:
Kułakowski, G., Nowakowski, H.
Selected
aspects of shaping the competence of civil and military air transport crew
using Crew Resource Management (CRM) training. Scientific Journal of Silesian University of Technology. Series Transport.
2019, 102, 85-97. ISSN: 0209-3324. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20858/sjsutst.2019.102.7.
Grzegorz KUŁAKOWSKI[1], Henryk
NOWAKOWSKI[2]
SELECTED ASPECTS OF SHAPING THE COMPETENCE OF CIVIL AND MILITARY AIR TRANSPORT CREW USING CREW RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (CRM) TRAINING
Summary. In this article, the Crew Resource
Management (CRM) is described as an important element of the flight safety
system aimed at preparing and supplying the aircraft crews with the necessary
knowledge and competencies in the area of personal and group performances and
limitations (Human Factor – HF). It also presents the CRM training
requirements for both flight and cabin personnel in commercial aviation, as
well as selected issues regarding the training of the military aviation personnel
in the field of human factors and CRM. This paper identifies the common CRM
training areas in the field of civil and military, and also presents the
fundamental differences and challenges faced by the military aviation in the
area of CRM training, based on one of the five key factors of the “5M
model” by James Reason influencing the aviation incidents –
“Media” (Environment).
Keywords: flight safety, human
factor, training, Crew Resource Management
1.
INTRODUCTION
The Crew Resources
Management (CRM) training of the flying personnel is aimed primarily at
increasing the level of aviation operations safety. Due to the scope of this
analysis, a synthetic attempt was made to approach the CRM in its selected
aspects. There are many documents and publications on the CRM, but there are
few studies dealing with the differences affecting the scope and preparation of
the flying personnel during the CRM training, among the needs arising from the
military and civil aviation characteristics, narrowed in this study to very
similar types of aviation, which are the civil transport aviation and military
transport aviation.
From the very beginning
of flying with crewed aircraft with propulsion, there has been an inherent
occurrence of various aviation incidents. It was also noticed that in each case
a recurring element of such air event was a man, the pilot. Therefore, the
“pilot error” was perceived as the main cause. Since 1947, Fitts
and Jones[3] demonstrated how the
cockpit design of an aircraft had significant impact on the pilot's mistakes.
It is assumed that it was then the term human
factor originated. Until the late 1970s, the human factor remained in the
domain of the aircraft engineers. It was NASA[4] which identified the
"deficiency" of the human factor in the area of communication,
decision-making and leadership as responsible for 70% of accidents in air
transport. It is not the shortage of information, equipment failure or lack of
training that turned out to be the culprit. It was then understood that even
the best-trained pilot - the commander - can find himself in situations where
mistakes can be made due to imperfections of the human body and psyche, as well
as the negative factors related to the relationships between the crew members
in the cockpit. Therefore, the Crew Resource Management training was introduced
in commercial aviation in order to reduce the possibility of the pilot making errors
by making better use of available human resources in the cabin.
On a global scale, the
commercial air transport (CAT) can be seen as a homogeneous, standardised and
predictable system in terms of organisation, tasks performed, aviation
equipment used and air personnel, prepared according to the required or more
correctly – recommended - standards (ICAO[5], EASA[6] or FAA[7]). Within the area of
the civil aviation connected with air transport, CRM training for several
decades have been an obligatory element for shaping non-technical competence of
crew members (the so-called soft competencies), especially flight aircraft
personnel consisting of several people (Multi-Crew) of the flight crew and
cabin crew. They are carried out both as dedicated courses and training, as
well as in connection with the training in the acquisition, maintenance and
improvement of the typical pilot-aviation abilities, including the usage of
aircraft systems and installations on the ground and in the air, as well as in
the foreseeable situations in the air, both in case of normal flight and in
abnormal and emergency situations. The CRM training are carried out as seminars
and workshop classes, and they also include practical elements carried out
during the course and training on the flight simulators.
As for military
aviation, CRM training play an important role in the process of preparing the
crews of aeroplanes and helicopters to perform tasks in accordance with their
purpose. It should be noted that in each country there are specific and
different systems in the area of crew resource management. The CRM training in
the military aviation, including an approach to CRM, has evolved over the last
few decades and is still changing, modifications and development are being made
just as in the field of the civil aviation as well. The factors having an
impact on the CRM training are not only national aviation traditions but also
the approach to the crew, known as a human factor in aviation, cultural
conditions and experience with the tasks performed resulting from events and
accidents in military and civil aviation, whose causes are related to the human
factor.
The issue of preparation
of the military aircrews seems to be more complicated and all the more
difficult to unify and systematise given the aviation for the entire armed
forces in a country, essentially consists of all types of aviation(aircraft and
helicopters) from the school, through supporting and surveillance aviation in
multi-crew air platforms, up to single-crew multirole aircraft. In addition,
the scope of tasks carried out, even narrowed only to the so-called transport
and supporting aviation on aeroplanes with multi-crews, extends from the
typical transport and airdrop tasks in the scope of metering and transporting
people and cargo, patrol and reconnaissance flights, through air-to-air
refueling tasks, to the mission in favour of special forces or anti-ship
missions.
Despite a common and
similar approach to the preparation of the crews, it can be defined that the
CRM trainings within the military aviation provides the crews of aircraft with
knowledge and skills[8] allowing for the
optimal use of the human resources, equipment, weapon systems, external
environment and procedures, and thus for the effective, successful and safe
implementation of the assigned tasks or missions ,– minimising in this
way potential own losses and the unintentional losses of the enemy.
2.
THE
CRM TRAINING IN THE CIVIL AVIATION - LEGAL GROUNDS AND SCOPE
Since the late 1970s,
the aviation authority for the European countries which have volunteered to
join this association was an organisation named the Joint Aviation Authorities
(JAA). It issued documents detailing the duties and rules of conducting
aviation activities by aviation operators, as well as defined the rules and area
of required training of flying personnel, including, among others, the CRM
training, named the Joint Aviation Requirements (JAR). However, the regulations
developed by JAA, which in fact do not have legal force, were adopted and
applied by the associated countries on a voluntary basis and began to be
replaced by the provisions of European Union (EU) law. In 2002 the European
Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) was established and during the subsequent years,
it overtook all the functions of JAA.
Under the EU law, the
regulations created by EASA applied only to EU member states, however, EASA
cooperates closely with corresponding institutions around the world, including
the ICAO and FAA in the United States and other countries. The regulations
developed by JAA and the regulations adopted by EASA define extensively in
detail the standards for CRM training. According to these regulations, that is,
the Commission Regulation (EU) No 965/2012 and 1178/2011, the CRM training
should be carried out by suitably qualified personnel, and its programme,
included in the Operational Manual of the air operator, should have the following
points therein:
-
human factors in the aviation, general instructions on the CRM
principles and objectives, human performance and limitations, threat and error
management.
-
personality awareness, human error and reliability, attitudes and
behaviours, self-assessment and self-critique, stress and stress management,
fatigue and vigilance, assertiveness, situation awareness, information
acquisition and processing.
-
automation and philosophy on the use of automation.
-
specific type-related differences.
-
monitoring and intervention.
-
shared situation awareness, shared information acquisition and
processing, workload management, effective communication and coordination
inside and outside the flight crew compartment, leadership, cooperation,
synergy, delegation, decision-making, actions, Cultural differences.
-
resilience development, surprise and startle effect.
-
operator’s safety culture and company culture, Standard Operating
Procedures (SOPs), organisational factors, factors linked to the type of
operations.
-
effective communication and coordination with other operational
personnel and ground services.
-
case studies connected with the human factor.
Training modules
selected from the list presented above should also be included in the training
programme of new types of aircraft, transitional training programme (when there
is a change of the employer or the air operator), command training programme
(for candidates for commanders of the aircraft) and refreshing annual training
programme. It is important that the operator should provide joint CRM training for
the flight crew members along with the cabin crew. Such training should reflect
the organisational culture of the given operator, while the theoretical and
practical forms of the conducted classes should guarantee the opportunity to
conduct discussions and exchange experiences, primarily in the context of
shortcomings and negligence in the flow of information and errors in the
communication process of crew members.
In the context of the
carried out analysis, it is necessary to note here that the CRM training for
the flying personnel is the only training to be carried out by the operators in
commercial air transport. The flight crew employed by the operator must comply
with the aviation legislation and EASA regulations with formal requirements
regarding the age and the appropriate pilot license, acquired airworthiness and
experience, or necessary certificates of qualification of the other crew
members. As part of the courses to obtain an Air Transport Pilot License
(ATPL), the pilot participates in the classes on the subject of “Human
Performance and Limitations”, which is also one of the obligatory
subjects to pass during the exam. The next step is the necessity to pass the
MCC[9] training, that is, to
obtain the permission to fly in multi-person crews. The scope of such training
covers the basic issues concerning the importance and role of communication,
mutual support, leadership, the influence of personality traits on the way the
task is carried out, etc.
Since the last decade of
the twentieth century, other dynamic growths of commercial air transport have
been dated. There has been significant development of aviation technologies and
reliability of aircraft have increased, including modern and pilot-friendly
electronic systems, displaying navigation and on-board data (glass cockpit
technology). This influenced the decision to construct and produce passenger
aircraft with cockpit crews consisting of two pilots. The increase in the
number of aircraft was not kept up by the "supply" of appropriately
trained, but above all - experienced pilots.
According to ICAO,
between 2001 and 2011 the tragic accidents of passenger aircraft caused by Loss
of Control in Flight (LOC-I) were the main cause of fatalities in commercial
aviation[10]. The analysis of the
data related to accidents, including LOC-I, indicated that the contributing
factors could be classified as caused by aeroplane systems, the environment,
the pilot/human factor, or any combination of these three factors. According to
the analyses, accidents caused by the pilot were the most frequent reasons for
an event caused by one or more of the following reasons that are part of the
CRM area:
-
the use of improper procedures.
-
loss of spatial orientation by one or more flight crew members (that is,
loss of situational awareness of level I).
-
improper management of aircraft energy.
-
the distraction of one or more flight crew members.
-
improper training.
Therefore, besides the
typical LOFT missions on flight simulators, including techniques of deriving
situations contributing to the loss of control in flight, additional topics to
be introduced during the CRM training were recommended by the aviation
authorities. Since 2016, in accordance with the Decision of the Executive
Director EASA No. 2015/022 / R (Table) and 2015/023/R amending AMC/GM to the
Regulation of the Commission (EU) No. 965/2012 and 1178/2011, further changes have
been implemented in the CRM training in CAT in Europe[11]. New elements have been
introduced to the existing procedures and the CRM training programme for the
flight crews and cabin crews, including topics on improving the competencies in
resilience development and preparing crew members in responding to surprise and
startle effect.
3.
CRM
TRAINING IN THE MILITARY TRANSPORT AVIATION - SELECTED ASPECTS
The analysis concerning
causes of accidents in the military air transportation in many countries made
the officers in charge of aviation aware that just as in civil aviation as many
as 70% of these accidents were caused by human error. The implementation of mandatory
training programme on the so-called “human factor” in the UK
military aviation was the first in Europe. The CRM training in the Royal Air
Force (RAF) began in the mid-1990s. The training programme covering many
aspects under the common term "Human Factor" was implemented, that
is, "factors that affect human work". It has been assumed that the
concept of the "human factor" extends well beyond the cockpit and
applies to all people involved in aviation activities. However, conclusions
from the available source materials[12] show that the first
attempts to introduce this type of training lasting over 2 years, were not fully
successful. Since 1997, further attempts have been made to provide training in
the “human factor” in the RAF, including the employment of civilian
instructors accepted by the UK Civil Aviation Authority (CAA), for the
implementation of basic CRM courses at flying units level.
In the US Air Force
(USAF), the first steps regarding the implementation of CRM programme were also
undertaken in the first half of the 1990s, due to the postulates of pilots and
commanders who noticed the need for a new approach to the human performance and
limitations of the military aviation. The need for a regular approach to
training and procedures was noticed in the context of the flight crews, and
also the need to actively engage a wide range of airmen and other people
supporting air operations. The US Air Force accepted the systemic approach to
the CRM and in 1994 the first document was issued - Air Force Instruction 11-290 under the name Cockpit / Crew Resource Program. The scope of the training programme
concerning the "human factor" in military aviation did not initially
find a fertile ground due to a different approach to the place and role of a
soldier as a military pilot, especially of a single-seat aircraft pilot or
multi-role combat aircraft. In general, this approach meant the feeling that
every military pilot should first of all take up the challenge of unconditional
implementation of the task, always bearing in mind its "missionary"
and direct impact on the lives and health of other citizens and the impact on
achieving the strategic objectives of the military operation.
As was earlier pointed
out, the first attempts to implement training in the field of human factors in
the military aviation took place in the armed forces of Western countries,
although training programme in this area were implemented later than in civil
aviation. Since the second half of the 1990s some of the Eastern Europe
countries (that is, Poland) joining NATO had an impact on a different approach
to the place and role of the "human factor" in aviation. The natural
and dominant role of the commander, whether on the ground or in the cockpit of
the aircraft, was not and still is not conducive to full acceptance of the
implementation of the CRM principles. This process needs to be long-lasting and
spread over the years. It is not possible to implement short-cuts of system
solutions brought in earlier in the armed forces in other countries for several
years, since this concerns the area related to the personality factors
influenced, among others, by the cultural factors, tradition or attitude.
The changes taking place
at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries in the Polish Air Force resulted in
the need to verify the existing aviation training system and the preparation of
the flying personnel, particularly the pilots. Challenges related to the
introduction of the new types of aircraft and helicopters adopting the
NATO-approved procedural solutions had to influence changes in the approach to
the training and education of the flying personnel. Organisational and
qualitative changes resulting from the aviation development and conclusions
derived from the tragic experiences related to aviation accidents[13] have significantly
influenced the perception of the role of the human factor in aviation, along
with its performance and limitations, and management of the available resources
on board the aircraft and outside. Polish flying personnel during the training
in European and American training centres and air bases (both civil and
military) being thus prepared for flying the newly acquired aircraft to the
Polish Armed Forces (F-16 and C-130 in the USA, as well as the C-295M in
Spain), have participated in the compulsory CRM training. At the same time,
efforts were made in the Polish military aviation to introduce system-based
improvement solutions in the area of CRM based on the global experience. Since
2008, a specialised combined course for the flying personnel in the field of
the Multi-Crew Cooperation (MCC), Crew Resource Management(CRM) and Operational
Risk Management (ORM) in aviation has been introduced in the syllabus in the
Air Force Academy in Dęblin, Poland. The basic regulations in the field of
military aviation of the Polish Armed Forces contain provisions on mandatory
training for the flying personnel in the field of ORM and CRM. The “Methodology
of risk management in aviation of the Polish Armed Forces (MZR-2010[14])” has been
implemented, and it has become a helpful tool for both the flying personnel and
commanding staff in the process of risk assessment at the planning and decision-making
process before the flight operations.
The military flying
personnel are familiarised with the limitations of the physiological aspects of
the human body that can affect the performance in flying tasks, as a part of
the aviation medicine training at the Military Institute of Aviation Medicine
(WIML). They also train practically in conditions simulating flights in normal
and emergency situations. The aim of these training is to increase the
operational capabilities of the crews, that is, the use of the aircraft in the
full range of acceptable operating parameters, reducing the number of errors
made and increasing the flight safety level. The aeromedical training (basic
and complementary) includes both theoretical classes conducted by the
specialists and physicians, as well as practical, including the training aiming
at familiarising the trainees with the effects of altitude hypoxia on the body
in the low-pressure chamber, and taking into account the impact of the flight
conditions and overload on physiology and psyche, preparation and training for
flights using night vision devices (NVG).
In accordance to the
military medicine requirements[15], the pilots can train
in the Dynamic Flight Simulator (DFS) during the medical training, that is, in
fact, one of the crucial functions of the Polish Human Training Centrifuge,
which gives plenty of opportunities for using it in operational, training and
diagnostic character. It allows for the performance of intensive pilot
training, providing a proper performance of anti-G manoeuvres and
familiarisation of the aircrews with the effects of high accelerations activity
with longitudinal time and push-pull phenomena. Moreover, the centrifuge
provides a safe alternative in raising the awareness of aircrews in case of possibilities
of unwanted effects of accelerations, such as G-LOC loss of consciousness or
spatial disorientation.
It should be added that
the flying personnel within the Polish Armed Forces are also involved in
training related to the causes of the occurrence, recognition of the symptoms
and preventing the occurrence of spatial disorientation in flight, dedicated to
the planes or helicopters pilots, using a unique spatial disorientation
simulator[16].
After 2010, the systemic
solutions in the field of the CRM training were developed in the Polish
military aviation, taking into account its specific character. Compulsory CRM
courses and training for the flying crews were implemented. Each member of the
flight crew participates in the basic CRM training, and then in periodic
improvement classes in the air units. Systemic solutions for the preparation
and improvement of CRM instructors have been implemented, including training in
foreign training centres. According to the "Instruction of training of flying personnel in the field of CRM (Crew
Resource Management) in the Polish air force" and its amendment
effective from January 1, 2018, the CRM courses and trainings are an integral
element of the military pilot’s training system, and other cabin crew
members; navigators, technicians / flight engineers, as well as the cabin crew
members (operators, loadmasters, aeromedical personnel, etc.) of the military
aircraft. The manual specifies types of CRM courses and training for the flying
personnel, including the rules of education and professional development of
military CRM instructors.
The assumption of
training in the field of CRM in military aviation is to optimise the
operational efficiency and combat capability of the flight crews and ensure the
safety of the flight personnel and used material resources. The goals of these
trainings should be achieved through a systematic training in improving the
effective skills of and reliable (safe) use of all available resources (both
human and material), including technical and non-technical competence (NOTECH)
of the crew members and available systems and installations of the aircraft, as
well as all information helpful in a safe and efficient flight.
The CRM training in the
military aviation starts simultaneously with the commencement of the basic
flight training of the flying personnel, to be later continued and expanded
throughout the entire military career. The CRM training are focused on
improving practical skills more than acquiring only theoretical knowledge. The
basic CRM training with candidates for air service (cadets) is carried out at
the military academy before the practical training on the military aircraft. In
the next stage, the trainees learn the practical application of theoretical
knowledge and essential CRM skills related to the type of aircraft, when
special attention is paid to proper preparation for flights, briefings, cabin
operations during the flight, as well as the use of necessary rules and
procedures during the completion of the task summary - debriefings. During such
training, it is established that an essential element of CRM training is the
use of simulators and other training devices in a comprehensive manner, which
should simulate operational conditions as close as possible to the real ones,
at the same time taking into account the specificity of missions.
In addition to the
training in the form of a course, all flight crew members in military units are
required to attend a refreshing training of the CRM conducted in a three-year
cycle. Additionally, as required flying personnel participate in type I CRM
training, related to conversion type of aircraft and type II CRM training
connected with the new assignment in other military unit and the commencing of
practical training in mock-ups or aircraft cockpits during flight preparations.
The purpose of the practical implementation of CRM training is teamwork, which
is getting used to flying together as a crew or tactical group.
Apart from the CRM
training, the military flying personnel participates in the tasks related to
evaluating the operational risk management before the essential stages of
aviation training, a group of tasks or types of flights (for example, display
flights, night training, instructor training, flights in mountainous, NVG
flights, etc.). Additionally, the commander of the aircraft is obliged to
assess the risk of the planned task (mission) and draw up a "risk
assessment card" (KSR[17]) before each flight
(except combat and SAR flights). At each stage of the military aviation
training, issues such as communication, flight coordination, task/mission
analysis, risk management and decision-making, situational awareness and
task/mission management are included.
Fig. 1. A general scheme
of training in the human factor in Polish military aviation
(own study)
The expected effect of
the CRM training is the acquisition of knowledge and skills, depending on the
type of aviation, the specificity of the tasks performed and the composition of
the crew, in the following areas:
-
cooperation in a team, mutual understanding and coordination of
activities inside and outside the cockpit,
-
effectiveness in recognizing the critical flight moments in which the
greatest threats may occur,
-
reducing the number of errors made by the crew, increasing the accuracy
of tasks and reducing the overloading during flight,
-
optimising the time used to prepare for flights, planning and debriefing
after task/mission,
-
effectiveness of managing stress and fatigue,
-
operation in standard, abnormal and emergency situations,
-
building a positive atmosphere in a team/crew/group,
-
effectiveness in decision making.
4.
CONCLUSION
In the field of military
aviation, it is very difficult to talk about uniformity or standardisation of
the personnel, due to the purpose of military aviation, use of various flying
platform, both planes, helicopters and other aircraft (for example, tiltrotor
military aircraft, etc.), crew composition and configuration (single-person or
multi-crew), including different configurations in the cockpit from two up to
even four airmen[18]. Despite commencing tasks/missions
during peacetime, most of them are carried out in formation of at least several
aircraft (up to several dozen aircraft – for example, COMAO[19]), often in dangerous
and/or not friendly and threatened environmental, and also to protect combat
air forces in their operations and support other types of aviation and types of
armed forces as part of training or combat flights. However, the most important
challenge faced by military aviation is to maintain an appropriate level of
safety flights and significant unpredictability of the flight operations
environment, not only in terms of the weather conditions, terrain or time of
the day, but each time requiring consideration of the enemy's influence from
the ground or from the air to accomplish own tasks and missions.
Although the aircraft
operations in the commercial air transport, performed by a typical
operator, appeared to be similar to the military ones, they are primarily
characterised by a smaller number of factors affecting flight safety and
efficiency, including:
-
definitely more predictability, the ability to plan flights and crews in
advance,
-
a larger number of available and trained crews, more than three trained
crews per aircraft (the typical crew ratio is 4-6 per aircraft),
-
commencing the typical passengers or cargo flights to the destination
airport, where service and handling are fully organised,
-
the flight preparation process belongs to operational personnel and
appropriate services (including dispatchers) together with the division of
pre-flight tasks, not involving the flight crew - the crew prepares directly
for a given flight,
-
properly prepared landing and take off airports with certified ATS, well
maintained and equipped with air navigation assets,
-
not flying to dangerous areas and unpredictable or threatened by combat
activities,
-
flights are performed in controlled airspace as IFR flights,
-
full standardisation of flight preparation.
Flights of the military
transport aircraft may be carried out, apart from typical mission performed by
commercial aviation, also depending on the type of aircraft as:
-
flights for the transport of cargo or passengers with landing at a
destination aerodrome or other improvised place for take-off and landing
(including contaminated runways),
-
air drop flights in day and night from low, medium or high altitude,
-
formation flights composed of two to a dozen aircraft of the same or
similar type,
-
tactical flights within COMAO,
-
NVG flights, single and group flights,
-
flights to dangerous and endangered areas,
-
flights to the airports where there are no air traffic services
certified by ICAO or EUROCONTROL,
-
to every airport, depending on military and political needs, in every
place in Europe and in the world, while meeting the minimum, necessary
operational requirements for the plane and crew.
It can be assumed that
the crews of the military aircraft must be prepared for standard and repetitive
tasks and missions, and done every time in unique circumstances. In addition,
in military aviation, during the planning process, the intended negative impact
of the enemy on the effectiveness and safety of its own air mission is
calculated.
Taking into account the
considerations described above, the implemented aviation training systems and
CRM training system, should ensure an appropriate level of preparation of the
military transport aviation crews to carry out all transport tasks in
accordance with the unit's combat purpose, often in short time, with limited
communication and navigational resources, in an unfavourable terrain. However,
it is a human - crew - aircraft -
formation system, in which the weakest element is a man and his preparation
and resilience, having a direct impact on the quality, efficiency and safety of
the aviation mission.
Used and applied global
solutions in the field of flying personnel preparation to perform the tasks in
the civil commercial aviation, constitute a very valuable source for the
preparation of the military aviation personnel. Newly introduced, for example,
in the Polish Armed Forces, is a system of pilot training, which considers the
need to acquire the necessary knowledge and aviation experience during studies
by candidates for military pilots prior to the commencement of flight training in
military aircraft, including familiarising with the human capabilities and
limitations at the basic stage of the aviation career, is valuable and useful,
but most importantly, it positively affects the level of flight safety.
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Journal of Silesian University of Technology. Series Transport is licensed
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