Article citation information:
Wolski, A. Operation of seagoing cruise ships
in polar waters of the Antarctica. Scientific
Journal of the Silesian University of Technology. Series Transport. 2017, 96, 215-219. ISSN: 0209-3324. DOI:
10.20858/sjsutst.2017.96.20.
Adam WOLSKI[1]
OPERATION OF SEAGOING CRUISE
SHIPS IN POLAR WATERS
OF THE ANTARCTICA
Summary. As
maritime tourism has been developing dynamically in recent years, including
cruises into polar areas, the author attempts to identify factors essential for
the safety of navigation in those sea areas, with a specific focus on the
waters of the Antarctica. The presented methods of navigation take account of
hazards that are typical in polar waters. All the considerations are based on
the guidelines of the Polar Code.
Keywords:
safety of navigation; maritime tourism; Polar Code; Antarctica
1. LEGAL
STATUS OF POLAR WATERS
Polar areas, including the Arctic
and the Antarctic areas, are commonly perceived and treated as being similar.
That said, there are a lot more differences than similarities. From the
international law perspective, those areas have a separate status, with
political, geographic and economic conditions excluding the possibility of one
area adopting any of the normative solutions already in place in the other.
The legal system for the areas
around the South Pole is based on the provisions of the Antarctic Treaty
(Washington Treaty) of 1 December 1959 [1]. The subject of the treaty comprises
an area located south of 60th parallel of south latitude, including all ice
shelves. Recognizing that, in the interest of all mankind, the Antarctica
should not become an arena or subject of international disputes, the parties to
the Antarctic Treaty agreed that the Antarctic would be used exclusively for peaceful
purposes. Over three decades later, on 4 October 1991, the Protocol on
Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty was signed in Madrid, under
which the relevant parties committed to ensuring the comprehensive protection
of the Antarctic environment, and its dependent and associated ecosystems, and
rendering the Antarctic as a natural reserve, to be exclusively used for
peaceful and scientific purposes.
International law gives no
territorial claims to Antarctic territory, but, by introducing the above
instruments, the claims on mainland Antarctica were ‘suspended’ for the
duration of the treaty [4].
2. TYPES OF DIFFICULTIES POSING FAILURE
RISKS TO VESSELS OPERATING IN ICE
Specific
environmental conditions
prevailing in the areas of ship operation enhance risk factors
(icing of ship, low temperatures etc.), thus increasing the likelihood of a
failure. Fig. 1 illustrates graphically the specifics of vessel operation in
terms of environmentally increased risks affecting a ship’s technical systems,
cargo and people [2].
The hull, materials Navigation system Propulsion systems Deck equipment
operability Working environment (noise,
vibration) Possibilities of crew
evacuation Competences Crew qualifications Disposal of waste Increased risk of vessel operation for: - crew - marine environment The ecosystem Low temperature Icing of the ship Darkness Remote areas Risk perception 1. Environment 2. Key systems 3. The risk Increased likelihood of damage Greater consequences of failures/accidents
Fig. 1. Simplified model of failure
risk during navigation in ice [2]
3. BASIC CONDITIONS OF SAFE SHIP
OPERATION IN POLAR WATERS
Safe
navigation in polar waters requires structural changes in the ship and specific
crew behaviour. These include the following:
• Designed strengthening of the hull, rudder,
shaft and propellers (according to ice class)
• Increased efficiency of the main engine
(according to conditions of navigation in ice)
• Operational capability of marine systems in
temperatures down to -40°
and below
• Safe work of marine systems with ship’s icing
and after grounding
• Work of the crew on a continuous 24 h basis
and in complete darkness (polar night)
• Work of the crew exposed to noise, impacts
and vibration of the ship
• Maximized use of information in ice field
forecasts, making use of experts’ experience and assistance through cooperation
with guidance centres for masters
• Development of operating
procedures in various navigational emergency (higher risk) situations and ship
failure in ice
In
conclusion, a
general relationship describing the total risk for a ship navigating in ice can
be observed. The relationship comprises a sum of three risk groups: risk of
damage of marine systems, failure to detect ice on a ship’s route and the loss
of human life.
The
total risk of navigation in ice can therefore be written by this formula:
where:
ΣRE – sum of risks associated with damage to technical
systems on board
ΣRI – sum of risks of failure to detect ice on a ship’s route
ΣRH – sum of risks
associated with the threat of human life loss [2]
4. INTERNATIONAL LEGAL SOURCES GOVERNING ICE
NAVIGATION AT SEA
The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has
provided a number of conventions, codes and guides, which make up the legal
basis governing marine navigation in ice and polar regions. The most important
are:
• International Convention for the Prevention of
Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 73/78 Marpol PROT 1997)
• International Convention for the Safety of
Life at Sea – SOLAS 1974, with the protocols SOLAS PROT 1978, SOLAS
PROT (HSC) 1988
• International Convention for the Safety of Fishing Vessels of 1977
with Annex to the Torremolinos Protocol of 1993
The International Code for Ships
Operating in Polar Waters (Polar Code) [3] was developed to enhance navigation
safety conditions in polar waters, i.e., in areas where navigation encounters
specific difficulties, and to mitigate the effects of this type of navigation
in the areas concerned. The Polar Code, another a regulatory instrument
introduced by the IMO, entered into force on 1 January 2017 in the form of
Chapter XIV of the 1974 SOLAS Convention (i.e., the International Convention
for the Safety of Life at Sea).
The Polar Code distinguishes three
ice classes of ships, namely:
1. Category A ships – designed for
operation in polar waters in at least medium first-year ice, which may include
old ice inclusions
2. Category B ships – capable of
operating at least in thin first-year ice, which may include old ice inclusions
3. Category C ships – capable of
operating in open water or in ice conditions less severe than those included in
categories A and B
The Polar Code contents include the
following parts: Introduction, including general provisions applicable to other
parts of the code; Part I-A concerns the compulsory requirements of safety
measures; Part I-B provides guidance for safety issues; Part II-A addresses
pollution prevention measures relating to polar waters; and Part II-B deals
with additional guidance relating to pollution prevention addressed in Part
II-A.
The Polar Code is based on the
analysis of factors causing increased navigational hazards in polar regions.
These include thickness of ice, sub-zero temperatures, prolonged periods of day
or night, far distance of vessels from stationary transmitting equipment,
difficult rescue operations and extreme weather conditions.
The
priority of the code is to ensure the safest possible operation in polar
waters, which, due to the specific environment, are characterized by dynamic
weather changes, difficulties in ship-shore communications, and uncertain
navigational information.
5. MARITIME ANTARCTIC
TOURISM
The International Association of
Antarctic Tour Operators (IAATO) is an international organization founded in
1991. The main objective of its activities is the promotion of safe and
environmentally friendly tourism to Antarctica. Initially established by seven
operators offering trips to Antarctica, the IAATO currently comprises over 100
members from all over the world. The organized tours are in compliance with the
Antarctic Treaty and a number of international safety- and protection-related
conventions. The IAATO coordinates annual plans concerning the number of cruise
ships headed to the Antarctic region, and the timing and number of ships
calling at particular ports, harbours and bays/gulfs. One of the aims here is
to control the number of tourists putting foot on the Antarctic shore in the same
place at the same time (it should be no more than 100).
Tab. 1
The number of tourists who arrived in
Antarctica during the 1990/91 to 2015/16 seasons
|
Season |
Number
of tourists |
Number
of ships |
Tourists
from Poland |
|
2015/16 |
38,476 |
53 |
103 |
|
2014/15 |
36,702 |
|
76 |
|
2013/14 |
37,405 |
|
120 |
|
2012/13 |
34,354 |
|
93 |
|
2011/12 |
26,509 |
|
53 |
|
2010/11 |
33,824 |
42 |
37 |
|
2009/10 |
36,875 |
|
79 |
|
2008/09 |
37,858 |
|
. |
|
2007/08 |
46,069 |
|
. |
|
2006/07 |
37,552 |
|
. |
|
2000/01 |
12248 |
18 |
. |
|
1990/91 |
1,055 |
|
. |
Source: based on IAATO 2017
The IAATO publishes annual reports
revealing the number of tourists arriving by sea or air. The base ports for
ships are Ushuaia, Puerto Madryn, Port Hobart and Auckland. Although the
analysis covers the 2000-2001 to 2015-2016 seasons (Table 1), the first marine
tourists (194 in total) showed up in that region in the 1957/58 season during
the Antarctic summer. In the past 10 years (2006/07 to 2015/16 seasons),
however, the Antarctic continent has been annually visited by as many as 38,478
tourists. In the last season, 53 ships conducted commercial activities.
Shipping in polar waters requires that ships, and their crews and systems,
satisfy special requirements of the Polar Code.
6. CONCLUSIONS
Every year, the number of cruise
ships and tourists in polar waters rises. Vessels in Arctic and Antarctic
waters are particularly vulnerable to equipment failures and accidents, due to
the presence of ice and icebergs. The IMO, after several years of discussions
among experts, introduced the Polar Code, which that entered into force on 1
January 2017. The Polar Code includes regulations concerning the principles of
construction, equipment and performance standards. Enhanced technical
requirements and special training for crews will help to reduce risks to people
and the polar marine environment.
References
1.
Dyrcz C. 2016. “Żegluga w Arktyce.” [In Polish: “Shipping in the
Arctic”.] Nautologia 153.
2.
Jurdziński
M. 2012. “Eksploatacja statków morskich w rejonach polarnych.” Prace Wydziału
Nawigacyjnego Akademii Morskiej w Gdyni 27: 5-20. [In Polish:
“Operation of marine vessels in polar regions”. Works of the Navigational Department of the Naval Academy in Gdynia
27: 5-20.]
3.
Resolution MSC.385(94), approved on 21 November 2014. International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters (Polar Code).
4.
Wałkowski
D. 2014. Kodeks
Polarny – Nowe Przepisy Dotyczące Żeglugi morskiej.
[In Polish: The Polar Code
– New Rules for Shipping.] Gdynia: Wardynski & Partners Law Office.
Available at:
http://www.codozasady.pl/kodeks-polarny-nowe-przepisy-dotyczace-zeglugi-morskiej/.
Received 03.04.2017; accepted in revised form 15.08.2017
Scientific Journal of Silesian
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