Article citation information:
Solecka, K. Modelling tools to integrate
public transportation. Scientific Journal
of Silesian University of Technology. Series Transport. 2016, 92, 129-139. ISSN: 0209-3324. DOI: 10.20858/sjsutst.2016.92.13.
Katarzyna SOLECKA[1]
MODELLING TOOLS TO INTEGRATE
PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION
Summary. One
of the main problems within cities is the lack of convenient public transport
connections, which offer passengers a comprehensive and efficient means of
transportation from one place to another. Urban transport integration is
intended to improve the functioning of public transport and, thus, is an
activity that significantly contributes to the quality of transport services
within cities. Transport integration may include solutions provided by urban
public transport, as well as solutions based on the integration of public
transport with individual transport modes. This article presents a
comprehensive approach to the integration of urban transport. Exemplary
tools integrating urban transport, along with examples of modelling in software
for traffic microsimulation, are shown.
Keywords:
transport integration; modelling; traffic simulation.
1. CONCEPT OF INTEGRATION IN URBAN PUBLIC
TRANSPORT
Integration (Latin:
integratio, English: integration) is understood as a
consolidation or connection, creating unity from parts, or folding or
simultaneously coming together [19, 25]. Typically, in urban public transport
services, the term integration is
used for solutions that ensure continuity in terms of
a “door to door” journey.
The integration of
transport may concern:
· various modes of
public transport
· public and
individual transport
In the context of
integrating public transport systems, various solutions are suggested [1, 7, 8,
9, 11, 12, 16, 20, 21, 26, 28, 29, 31], such as: facilitating changes to the
means of transport for passengers by proper planning of a transport network;
contemplating various means of transport; development of infrastructure in
order to create good connections and comfortable changes; designing transport
services that combine journeys via various means of transport at any distance
with coordinated timetables; a common tariff; interchanges; and appropriate
equipment that facilitates interchanges in a multi-modal information
environment for passengers. In the below, a brief description is given of the
various solutions that integrate urban public transport:
Interchange - This is a place where different
carriers and different means of transportation meet, and where passengers
arrive with a view to changing their means of transport [29]. As an
integration solution, it helps the passengers to change between the means of
transport. It can be used as a place of marketing and promotional activities in
support of public transport. In Szymalski’s [23]
study, an interchange node, according to the Swiss, is a place in the transport
system, where, during a trip, one can change the means of transport at least
between two different modes of transport.
Common tram-bus tracks - This type of solution is based on the common use of separated tracks
by trams and buses [27]. Integration of public transport vehicles in this case
can take place in two ways, i.e., by separate streets for trams and buses, and
by separated common bus and tram lanes.
Common stops for public transport vehicles - These stops constitute an element in the spot
infrastructure of the transport system. They represent a designated place where
a bus or a tram can stop to allow the passengers to enter/exit the vehicle. When
the roadway is shared with the tram road, the stops perform the function of a
common bus and tram stop [30].
Coordinated timetables - A timetable is a work schedule for carriers and vehicle drivers. For
customers, however, it represents an essential part of the transport offer
[11]. A timetable for a public urban transport line should correspond to the
time and spatial distribution of transport needs. According to transport law
[17], the coordination of timetables consists of establishing interconnections
between different modes of land-based transport in relation to contact points
on the basis of a timetable, with an agreed course of communication lines and
hours of departure of vehicles, thereby providing regular public transport with
a particular regard to the following: transport needs reported by local, county
or regional municipalities, as well as securing transportation needs in
relation to carriers.
Common tariff (fare and ticket integration) - This is one of the main instruments of
transport policy and one of the most important activities in the integration of
public transport. It can only be made where there is integration of tariffs or
tickets. It is important, however, to strive for the establishment of
common and internally integrated tariffs for public transport services
involving one common ticketing system at the same time. Integration of fares
and tickets is the first step on the way to full integration. Integration of
fares and tickets allows passengers to purchase a single ticket, which is valid
in relation to transportation involving two or more carriers (organizers) [14].
Integration of tariffs should be understood as the unification of
principles respected by the carrier and the travellers (the rights and
obligations of the carrier) and the resulting tariff rates, which refer to the
prices for the performed services. The passengers has an “integrated”
ticket with which s/he can travel on and change to various means of transport,
from the place of departure to the place of arrival.
Integration of information - This covers all levels of the transport network supporting urban,
agglomeration or regional transport. It serves to provide passengers with
stress-free transport options throughout the transport system. An integrated
passenger information system means that passenger information is shared across
the network, regardless of the carrier and mode of transport. We can
distinguish different sources of information for public transport passengers:
information provided in service points, via telephone, via the Internet,
and at stops and stations. An additional convenience for passengers concerns
information provided in real time. This allows passengers to travel with more
flexibility and constitutes a better response to delays and/or
interferences in the network. Information on public transport should take into
account all stages of the journey, as well as the associated costs [5], such as
access to the stop (information on the location of the stop and information
about the possibilities of getting to it), awaiting the arrival of the
vehicle (information concerning the timetable, information about the delays,
failures and alternative lines), information about the journey by means of
public transport (information about the length, travel route and the travel
costs), change in the mode of transport (information about the location of
interchange nodes while waiting for a new vehicle) and access to the journey
destination (information on service objects, factories etc. in the vicinity of
the bus stop and opportunities to walk to them).
Integration
of transport policy with other policies affecting land use planning or
infrastructure-related investments. This is based on the specific
planning of a spatial urban form with the existing transport network. Proper
use of land and transport infrastructure has to ensure the alignment of
planning and land management, as well as transport planning.
With regard to the integration of
public and private transport, the following can be distinguished [4]:
Park and ride (P&R) - This is a system of interchanges
consisting of car parks located in the vicinity of stations, railway stations
and other public transport stops. P&R parking
lots are often accompanied by public use buildings, such as shopping centres.
Drivers can leave cars in parking lots before continuing their journey to the
city centre by public transport.
Bike and ride (B&R) - This is analogous system to the “P&R” system, but is designed for cyclists who, having
reached key transport hubs, can safely leave their bicycles and continue their
journey with the use of public transport. B&R is
a solution that integrates public transport and individual transportation
(i.e., the bicycle), thereby helping to improve the availability of public
transport and the limited range of individual transportation options. Using a
bicycle as a means of transport reduces the time to reach the public transport
hub, particularly when compared to walking on foot. B&R
may be complemented by a city bicycle system, which is a city network of
bicycle rentals, located close to public transport hubs in key city locations.
As such, it is possible to use a bicycle, both before and after using public
transport.
Transporting bicycles on public transport - This option involves transporting bicycles on
special platforms pushed by trams, carrying bicycles on special racks installed
on buses and carrying bicycles inside the means of public transport in
specially prepared holdings.
Personal rapid transit (PRT) system - This is based on the use of publicly
available vehicles from which passengers get on and off at different stations,
in similar ways to bus or tram stops. However, unlike buses or trams, but
similarly to passenger cars, PRT vehicles can usually
accommodate two to six passengers. They can use the PRT
system individually (e.g., taxis), indicating the desired end stop to
which the PRT system takes them without stopping at
intermediate stops. PRT vehicles do not circulate
according to a strict timetable; rather, they are available on request from the
passenger. Depending on the type of PRT option, they
travel on routes that are specially prepared and protected in relation to other
traffic (on the level of the ground, elevated or suspended), which are intended
exclusively for them [2].
Solutions of a legal and organizational nature - Such solutions enable the use of
appropriate modifications, as follows:
·
allowing the vehicles used by more people (HOV) to drive in lanes
·
involving lanes that are separated for buses and on
tram-bus tracks (TTA)
·
exemption from fees/discounts for the use of public
transport for drivers leaving their cars on a P&R
site
·
conditional permission to transport bicycles on public
transport
·
introduction of IT systems to facilitate journey
planning and booking parking spaces in P&R
parking lots
2. MODELLING SOLUTIONS THAT INTEGRATE PUBLIC
TRANSPORT
Simulation is a numerical
technique used to conduct experiments on certain types of
analytical/mathematical models, which describe, via a digital machine, the
functioning of a complex system over a long period of time [15]. In the
available literature, there are many definitions of the term simulation. According to the PWN encyclopaedia [3], computer simulation is a method of
reproducing phenomena occurring in the real world (or some of their
characteristics and parameters) via their mathematical models, as defined and
supported using computer programs. It is particularly used to analyse such
phenomena and processes whose direct observation would not be possible or would
be too expensive. The simulation model is the final result of a series of
activities to highlight and formalize the parameters of a real system, as
well as determine the relations between these parameters in time, in order to
find their counterparts in the secondary system. The simulation model describes
the functioning of the system using events that take place in the
individual components of this system[10]. It reflects the travellers’ needs to travel
between specified points and allows their implementation through a simple road
and transport infrastructure description model. It is an excellent
analytical tool, which may significantly facilitate the problem-solving
process.
There are three basic levels of
traffic simulation: macroscopic, mesoscopic and microscopic simulation.
Macroscopic models evaluate urban traffic at a high level of aggregation, in
terms of traffic flow without focusing on the components. Macroscopic
simulation describes the system, including interactions occurring between the
components at a low level of detail. It takes into account the
characteristics of a transport network, such as capacity, speed limits, volume
and density. A microsimulation model describes the behaviours of
individuals included in the traffic flow, as well as the interactions that
occur between them. A crossing or a selected road fragment can be regarded as
areas of research (e.g., transport corridor). A mesoscopic simulation is
carried out at an intermediate level of detail. It describes individual
vehicles, but does not account for interactions taking place among them. It
fills the gap that exists between the general level of description of a macro
simulation traffic system and a detailed description of a micro stimulation.
Examples of modelling tools, which integrate urban public transport in Visum software for macro simulation of traffic, are
presented below.
3. MODELLING OF TOOLS THAT INTEGRATE URABAN PUBLIC TRANSPORT IN VISUM
SOFTWARE FOR MACRO SIMULATION OF TRAFFIC
This article presents the
simplest ways of modelling macro simulation of traffic using selected tools in Visum software, which integrate urban public transport
options, such as [22] interchange nodes, common stops, common bus-tram tracks,
common tickets, passenger information and coordinated timetables. In contrast,
examples of modelling tools, which integrate urban public transport with
individual transport, can be found in [4].
3.1. Interchange nodes
In order to model an
interchange node, it is important to design the route of the means of transport
to minimize the transfer time of a passenger from one stop to another. When
modelling, it is important to control the following elements: change in the
location of the bus stop in terms of connecting to the network using
connectors, occasional pedestrian access from one stop to another in order to
change the means of transport, and change in the value of the attribute
“penalties for interchange” [18, 22] between the given means of transport.
Take the example in Figure 1, which
supposes that, along the PKP (Polish Railways), there
is a tram line (black line). The passenger needs 7 min to walk from the tram
stop (T) to the railway station (PKP). As a
result of the introduction of a new tram line (dotted line), which runs above
or near the bus stop (A), the access time (Td) between these stops is reduced
to 40 s, because the distance between the stops is reduced. Both bus and tram
stops are located as close to the railway station as possible. In places where
it is possible, transfer times between the stops have to be measured (in person
or by using applications of interactive maps from the Internet [6], assuming
the speed of a person to be 4km/h). In which case,
the data are then entered to the model. In interchange nodes, a lower
value of attribute, which concerns a penalty for a change, was introduced, such
that the value of penalties for the changes are defined on the basis of
available studies, as presented in the literature [18] or on the basis of own
survey results.
Fig. 1. An example of
the modelling interchange node [22]
3.2. Common stops
In order to model a common
stop, it is important to lead the route of the means of transport in such a way
that access time of the passenger from one stop to another was 0 min. When
modelling, we control the following elements: change of location of the stop
(the introduction of the stops on one platform) and occasional pedestrian
access from one stop to another in order to change the means of transport.
The example (Fig. 2) assumes that
the tram line (bottom line) runs in parallel to the bus route (the top line),
such that the passenger needs 5 min to walk from the tram stop (T) to the bus
stop (A). As a result of a change in the course of the bus line within the
vicinity of the tram stop, the introduction of a bus onto the common bus
and tram track in the area of the stop (dashed line) means that we manage
to shorten the access time (Td) between the two stops to 0 min. The process of
changing the means of transport is done within the common platform. In places
where it is possible, transfer times between the stops have to be measured (in
person or by using applications with interactive maps from the Internet [6],
assuming the speed of a person is 4 km/h).
Fig. 2. An example of
modelling a common stop [22]
3.3. Common tram-bus tracks
In order to model common
tram-bus tracks, it is important to lead the bus line within the same
roads as the tram lines. This causes an increase in the speed of bus lines.
On the entire length of the common track for trams and buses, it is
important to implement common tram-bus stops, which in turn leads to shortening
the access time of the passengers from one stop to another in order to change
the means of transport. The design of such solutions can be done by shifting
the course of bus routes onto the tram routes, permitting a higher speed
for buses in the common tram-bus track, thereby reducing the speed of trams
circulating on the common tracks, relocating tram/bus stops and positioning
them on the same platform, and improving the access time of a pedestrian from
one stop to another in order to change the means of transport.
In the example (Fig. 3), assuming
that the tram line runs in a separated track, the travelling speed of the tram
is V = 35 km/h, while the bus line, which runs along the street, circulates
with all other vehicles, in which the average drive speed (without stops) of
the bus is V = 22 km/h. The passenger needs 4 min to walk from the tram
stop (T) to the bus stop (A), such that access time Td = 4 min. Introduction of
the bus onto a common bus and tram track means that the access time between
these stops is reduced to 0 min, while the drive speed of the bus is increased
by about 10-15km/h, thus the speed of the tram can be
reduced to about 5 km/h. The process of changing the means of transport is done
within the same platform.
Fig. 3. An example of
modelling a common tram-bus track [22]
3.4. Joint ticket
A joint ticket is a
form of integration involving the implementation of a single, universal ticket,
which is recognized by all carriers of different types of transport. The
implementation of such a solution can be modelled in tools for the simulation
of traffic through the introduction of an additional attribute, namely,
“penalties for a change” to a different means of transport, which is not in the
system (e.g., PKP). When having a joint ticket, the penalty
for a change is smaller; however, in the absence of a joint ticket, the penalty
for a change is higher. The amounts of penalties should be assumed on the
basis of the research presented in the literature or based on our own surveys
[18, 22].
3.5. Information for passengers
Information for passengers is another tool
regarding the integration of an urban public transport system. It suggests
modelling two cases of the availability of information for passengers, as
follows:
─
The first case concerns the lack of information about
the departure times of public transport vehicles, as well as passengers who do
not have any information about the departure times of public transport
vehicles. In the Visum software, it is modelled in
the following way: if the passenger does not have additional
information, s/he must decide whether to take the arriving line or not.
The passenger selects a line from the set of lines, which arrive in the first
instance. Additionally, the model is characterized by the frequency in terms of
the time “gap” between the two lines, which is not constant, but
exponential.
─
The second case concerns a situation in which the
passengers know the departure times of vehicles. The passengers know the
departure times of vehicles and the frequency of travel. The optimal strategy
can be formulated as follows: a passenger gets on the line (selects the lines),
which, in effect, offers the lowest cost from the current offer of departure
times. Unlike the previous case, passengers do not get on the first incoming
line because they know the waiting times. In other words, the decisions that
the passengers make are not subject to unspecified influences.
3.6. Coordination of timetables
Generally, the coordination of
a timetable is based on the timetables introduced to the software. When
dealing with models based on the frequency of travels (such as the model
created for the city of Cracow), an integration tool for the coordination of
timetables can be replaced by the instrument: in other words, modularity and
frequency, which results in a reduction in the waiting time for the change
of vehicle and leads to the coordination of timetables. In models based on the
frequency of travels, there is no point in introducing the coordination of
timetables, due to the failure to obtain satisfactory results in the end (e.g., coordination
of timetables in several points will cause inconsistency of the model).
Modelling of the modularity and frequency tool consists in changing the
frequency parameter for the basic and supplementary bus and tram lines, thereby
maintaining modularity, such that, for example, the introduction on the basic
bus and tram lines travel at a frequency of 6 min. Meanwhile, on the
supplementary bus and tram lines, travel frequency is every 12 min.
4. SUMMARY
Transport integration brings
many benefits to all users of the transport system. For example, a
well-planned, operated and managed interchange helps to reduce the time needed
to change the means of transport, as well as the time spent on waiting for the
means of transport, which in turn leads to a reduction in the travel time.
Common bus and tram tracks significantly increase transport capacity in the
transport route. The result of the introduction of buses onto the tram tracks
is to facilitate their movement, thus reducing a loss of time on certain
sections. Solutions of this type contribute measurable benefits to those
passengers who start their journey and change vehicles, as it gives them the
possibility to use only one stop, thereby reducing the risk of accidents in
connection with the need to cross the road in order to change the stop. Common
stops mean that the passenger does not have to decide whether they go to a bus
or a tram stop, which means that they are ensured that they will benefit from
the quickest solution. Creating common stops for public transport
increases passenger safety, given that, when changing vehicle, they are not in
conflict with individual transport vehicles. Taking into account the
coordination of timetables, we can say that timetables are an underrated
tool for shaping the transport offer. The regularity of service makes that the customer
feel that public transport is secure and reliable. Coordinated timetables
primarily reduce the time lost by passengers while waiting for another vehicle
during transfer operations. The coordination of timetables is beneficial in
economic and financial terms. One of the main advantages of the
integration of tariffs and tickets is, as previously mentioned, the ability
to travel using a joint ticket on various means of transport. As a result,
using the services offered by urban public transport, passengers do not
have to worry about the knowledge of tariffs of individual carriers, or
the need to look for places to buy tickets or validate them etc. Considering
the integration of individual transport with public transport, it is
important to pay special attention to the P&R
system. This system has many advantages and benefits, which include, among
others [13, 24], reducing the occupancy of parking spaces in city centres,
enabling the regaining of urban space for pedestrians and cyclists, reducing
urban congestion and increasing the number of journeys made on public transport.
The mentioned benefits of integration, both on public transport and
involving public and individual options, clearly impact on improving the
quality of life in cities. They lead to an improvement in the travel
conditions on public transport and contribute to the fact that passengers
perceive it as a more friendly and convenient way to travel. This increases the attractiveness
of the services, which in turn leads to an increase in the number of passengers
and the level of revenue from tickets.
However, given that the real public
transport system was well integrated, it is important to firstly carry out a
number of experiments and computational simulations. Specialized software for
traffic simulation helps to predict how an integrated public transport system
will work in the real world, even before it is implemented Thanks to the
simulation, it is possible to analyse activities associated with traffic in the
city, assess the impact of new solutions and optimize them. Thanks to a
well-conducted simulation, it is possible to avoid most of the errors
already made at the stage of the design phase. It is important to create simple
simulation models, even if they will accurately reflect the behaviour of the
modelled tool or of the entire system. A model that is incorrectly built can
consequently lead to incorrect simulation or misinterpretation, which may lead
to erroneous results and serious consequences, including financial
consequences. That is why substantive preparation is crucial. When creating the
model, it is important to pursue the biggest simplifications as possible.
Thanks to this, the model becomes more understandable and easier to analyse.
Moreover, in the case of modernization, improvement in existing solutions and
computer simulation are essential, given that trials and tests of real systems
are avoided. Simple methods of modelling solutions, as described in the
article, which integrate public transport in the Visum
software for macro simulation of traffic, may be a clue in solving problems
related to the integration of transport.
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Scientific Journal of Silesian University of
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