Article
citation information:
Chettah, S.E., Amar, N.N. Towards a sustainable
transport in Algeria: the requisite of energy transition in the road transport
sector. Scientific Journal of Silesian
University of Technology. Series Transport. 2021, 112, 33-49. ISSN: 0209-3324. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20858/sjsutst.2021.112.3.
Saif Eddine CHETTAH[1],
Nadra NAIT AMAR[2]
TOWARDS
A SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT IN ALGERIA:
THE REQUISITE OF ENERGY TRANSITION IN THE ROAD TRANSPORT SECTOR
Summary. Less than ten years
ago, Algeria embarked on an energy transition with the objectives of
sustainable development. Although it concerns all economic sectors, efforts
made in the field of road transport, as the main polluter and energy consumer
at the national level, are far from being sufficient despite its inclusion in
policy statements. This sector is operational exclusively on fossil and
exhaustible energies whereas its atmospheric pollutants and gaseous emissions
are highly harmful to the environment, public health and the economy. Thus,
this paper points out the emergency of an energy transition in the road
transport sector to clean and renewable energy as a necessity rather than a
choice. It highlights, first, the characteristics of the Algerian automobile
fleet and its various impacts and damages on the environment, public health and
the economy. Furthermore, it evaluates the various policy initiatives towards
sustainable transport and their deficiencies. Hence, the right attitudes and
regulatory instruments towards sustainable transport in Algeria are
recommended.
Keywords: energy transition, road transport, environment,
public health, economy, sustainable transport
1. INTRODUCTION: TRANSPORTATION AND
CLIMATE CHANGE FROM GLOBAL TO THE ALGERIAN ISSUE
Until the use of engines in the 19th century, the consumption of fossil
fuels and air pollution from means of transport became significant [11, 27].
The gases escaping from these sources are more difficult to evacuate than those
released through the chimneys of buildings or industries [23, 24, 28]. The
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) confirms that recent
anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are the highest in at least
800,000 years [20]. In fact, the concentrations of the related pollutants
reached 11.70 gigatons of CO2 equivalent (GTCO2-eq) between 1750 and 1970. However, this same quantity has been emitted in the
last 40 years only giving a cumulative amount of 23.5 GtCO2-eq [20].
Although the land and oceans have absorbed 60% of these emissions, 40% of them
are presently free in the atmosphere with adverse consequences on humanity and
the entire planet. These consequences have manifested in recent years through
floods, excessive heat waves, decline in crops, rising sea levels, warming of
the atmosphere and oceans, etc. [11, 20, 28]. In response to this crisis, the
United Nations has been urging since 1987 for a "socio-ecological"
transition, asking humanity to find new ways to move, live, produce and consume
according to the sustainable development goals [33]. In 2006, the IPCC experts reiterated the call for this transition by
confirming that the continuation of the current model of economic development
driven by the expansion of motorised d transport and growing urbanisation ,
will result in a significant increase (+2 to +6.4°C) in the temperature of
our planet by 2100. This will severely threaten the survival of human
societies, animal and plant species [20].
However, being able to participate in various daily life activities
requires a certain ability to move around as well as easy spatio-temporal
accessibility [14]. This means increased recourse
to motorised modes, particularly in developing countries such as Algeria where
environment-friendly alternatives are greatly lacking [5, 6, 8, 18]. In fact, Algeria has known an accelerated expansion of
motorised and non-sustainable means of transport following its strong
demographic growth [9, 13, 24, 43]. As with urban sprawl, the
large separation of the place of residence and workplace has led to a sharp
rise in travelling distances, which increased demand for transport [9, 13, 32]. As road transport is the most dominant mode in Algeria [8, 26, 32], road
traffic has also experienced significant growth, particularly over the last 20
years [13]. The National Economic and Social Council (CNES) estimated it at 7%
per year [9]. Whether for passengers or goods, more than 85% of Algerians use
the road daily [18]. The development of road infrastructure in Algeria is to
the detriment of the maritime and rail infrastructure, which have removed
geographical barriers by offering motorists better accessibility to places
[14], explains mainly this trend [8, 9, 32]. Nevertheless, the increases of motorised
modes combined with the effects of climate change are seriously converging to
the point of threatening the stability of the whole country. In other words,
increases in mobility, both in terms of daily commuting and in terms of the
fossil fuels consumed, directly affect the local environment and lead to strong
pressures on economic development, public health and quality of life of
Algerians, particularly in urban areas [5, 22].
To address these problems and demonstrate its
firm willingness to participate in the international effort to minimise the
consequences of climate change (on natural ecosystems and the sustainability of
socio-economic development), Algeria signed the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1993 as well as the Kyoto Protocol in
2005. Furthermore, in 2010, it insisted through the National Scheme of Land Use
(SNAT) to integrate sustainability as a prior preoccupation in the field of
urban and national planning [32]. The experts of this scheme adopted some
measures to mitigate GHG emissions in the energy sector as a major challenge
for the country [32]. Accordingly, they prioritised the "energy
transition" by promoting the use of renewable energy in some fields [5, 8].
Despite these efforts at addressing these environmental, economic and energy
issues, they seem, however, insufficient and ineffective since they failed to
link the issue of sustainability to that of road transport, which constitutes
the main energy consumer and emitter of GHGs on a national scale [3, 5, 15]. Thus, reducing GHG emissions from road transport has
become a major challenge for Algeria in particular [1, 15, 18, 26].
Through this paper, we want to demonstrate why
the energy transition in the field of road transport is quite essential and
urgent in Algeria, and why this sector needs to significantly reduce its
dependence on petroleum products and move toward renewable and sustainable
options. Subsequently, we have chosen to structure our paper according to five fundamental elements. First,
we highlighted the characteristics of the Algerian automobile fleet in terms of
growth, composition and age. Second, we demonstrated how this sector alone
consumes such a large share of the country's energy (essentially petroleum
products) and why it is ahead of other economic sectors in this regard. Third,
we presented the main pollutants and gaseous discharges from the fuels consumed
by road transport means in relationship with the characteristics of motor
vehicles. Thereafter, we highlighted the strong contribution of the road
transport sector to air pollution in Algeria by presenting the emission rates
for each of the pollutants previously discussed. Fourth, we evaluated the
economic costs related to energy consumption and the various environmental and
human damages generated by this sector. Finally, we analysed the different
options and policies undertaken by the government to mitigate atmospheric
pollutants and gaseous emissions issued from road transportation. It is important to note that this study
is based on statistics gathered from several national offices, reports and
inventories.
2. THE ALGERIAN AUTOMOBILE FLEET AND ITS
CHARACTERISTICS
2.1. Automobile fleet’s growth
According to the statistics provided
by the National Statistics Office (ONS), while the number of inhabitants
increased by 53.50% passing from 28.56 million in 1996 to 43.85 million in 2020,
the Algerian automobile fleet increased by 141.83% passing from 2.78 million
motor vehicles to 6.73 million motor vehicles over the same period (Figure 1).
The estimated level of motorised transport in Algeria was 95
vehicles per 1000 habitants in 2000 [13], increasing to 153.66 vehicles per
1000 habitants in 2020 [37].
The Algerian automobile fleet consists of
many categories. As illustrated in Figure 2, private cars represent the bulk of the Algerian car
fleet with 63% of the total fleet, followed by vans and lorries,
20% and 7% in 2020, respectively. Indeed, private cars experienced the fastest
growth over the last 20 years [8, 42]. The increase in income level [24] and
the reduction of the purchase price of vehicles [42] motivated the introduction
of the automobile credit in 2001, which is the heart of the acquisition of
private cars among several Algerian families, even the middle classes [1, 24, 42].
The implementation of the aid scheme, within the framework of the National
Agency for Support to Youth Employment (ANSEJ) for young people wishing to set up
transport companies since 1996, allowed several unemployed young people to
acquire a van or a truck for professional use [18], which explains the rates
below. Other factors contributed to this
rapid evolution of the Algerian transport system and the keen interest in
mobility. The most significant are: the liberalisation of the automobile market in 1988 [1, 8, 13], the good economic situation of the last decade of the
country [9], the low cost of fuel and the acquisition of driver’s licence
developing among youths and women [1, 13]. This has led to the over-consumption
of fuels, which in turn increases the intensity of atmospheric pollution.
Indeed, many studies showed that road traffic in Algeria is mostly generated by
private cars, which constitute the main source of congestion, and consequently,
the major source of pollution in urban areas [9, 22, 24, 26]. Thus, road transport and
particularly private cars have proven to be the major cause of the bad air
quality in Algerian [2, 3, 6] as well as in European
cities [12].
Fig. 1. Evolution of the Algerian automobile fleet
according to population growth
Source:
Graph produced by authors based on the ONS statistics [37]
Fig.
2. Distribution of the Algerian automobile fleet by
type of vehicles
Source: Chart produced by authors based on the ONS statistics [37]
2#2.2. Automobile fleet age
It is a well-known fact that the amount of pollutants
emitted by engines is largely related to the automobile fleet age [11, 13]. In
other words, older vehicles consume more fuel, and consequently, emit more
pollutants [8]. By the developed world standard and according to the
distribution of the Algerian automobile fleet by age in 2020 (Figure 3), we
confirmed that the latter and its technologies are dilapidated. The average age
of the vehicles remains high with 62.13% of vehicles
older than 10 years, whereas those aged less
than 5 years represent 20.15%. We note that due to the measures adopted in 2005,
prohibiting the import of used vehicles and introducing compulsory
roadworthiness tests [1, 34], the automobile fleet has been relatively renewed, given that in 2003, 87% of vehicles were aged more
than 10 years [24].
Fig. 3. Distribution of the Algerian automobile fleet
by age of vehicles
Source: Chart produced by authors based on the ONS
statistics [37]
3.
THE ROAD TRANSPORT SECTOR: A LARGE
CONSUMER OF ENERGY AND FOSSIL FUELS IN ALGERIA
Energy consumption is the amount of energy (liquid,
gaseous, electrical, etc.) consumed in a given geographic area in a given year
[2]. It can be measured per capita, by sector of economic activity (agriculture,
industry, transport, household, etc.) or by sub-sectors (road, sea, air
transport, etc.). According to the annual report of the Ministry of Energy and
Mines, energy consumption is growing constantly and in most sectors in Algeria
as well [13, 29, 30]. Analysis of Figure 4 allows us
to say that transport sector (all modes
combined) is one of the most energy-consuming sectors at the national
scale. Its consumption tripled in 20 years from 5 million tonnes of oil
equivalent (Mtoe) in 2000 to 15.28 Mtoe
in 2020, which represents 31.73% of the total energy (all types combined) consumed in the whole country. In terms of
fossil fuels only (with exception of electricity), the transport sector
consumption is largely ahead of the consumption of the residential and
construction sector (11.7 Mtoe in 2020) despite the large number of investment
projects undertaken on the national territory and the significant needs of this
sector in terms of energy [18].
We noted
that almost 93.86% of the transport-related energy was consumed by road means.
The remaining 6.14% is divided between rail and air transport (2.09% and 3.98%
– Figure 4). In other words, out of 15.28 Mtoe of energy consumed by the
transport sector, all modes combined, a quantity of energy equal to 14.34 Mtoe
was exclusively devoted to road transport, which is heavily dependent on
petroleum products (gasoline and diesel). This dependence has been growing
steadily, particularly, in the last two decades. In 2000, means of road
transport consumed 87% of fossil fuels [2], whereas in 2020, this rate
increased to 94.65% [3]. According to APRUE, this consumed energy is made up of
9.31% Mtoe of gasoline (64.95%), 4.14 Mtoe of diesel (28.89%), 0.76 Mtoe of
Liquefied Petroleum Gas fuel “LPG” (5.35%), and 0.11 Mtoe of
Compressed Natural Gas “CNG” (0.81%). Many studies confirm that
private cars are the main energy consumers in Algeria over the two last decades,
which explains the high levels of pollutants and gaseous emissions especially
in urban areas [6, 15, 19, 22].
Fig. 4. Final
energy consumption (in kilo tonne oil equivalent [Ktoe]) in Algeria in 2020:
a) by economic activity sectors, b) by transport modes (NB: 1000 Ktoe = 1 Mtoe)
Source: APRUE [3]
4. ROAD TRANSPORT SECTOR: THE MAIN ATMOSPHERIC
POLLUTER IN ALGERIA
4.1. Main pollutants and gaseous emissions by
road transport means
Pollutants emitted by road transport, are multiple but
the main ones that affect the environment and contribute to climate change, and
affects public health are seven. These and their origins are summarised in Table 1.
Tab. 1
Origins of
pollutants and gases emitted by road transport vehicles
|
Name |
Chemical symbol |
Origin |
|
Carbon monoxide |
CO |
Incomplete and
rapid combustion of fuels, especially in traffic jams where its emission increases
while vehicles are idling. 50% of CO emissions come from road transport. It occurs during
the oxidation of unburned hydrocarbons especially in gasoline-powered
vehicles (emission rate 93%). |
|
Carbon dioxide |
CO2 |
All engines running on fossil fuels release CO2
into the atmosphere. A 56-litre tank of gas corresponds to a release of 135
kg of CO2. Different types of engines have roughly similar
emissions. The CO2 emitted by road transport tends to increase in
connection with the increase in the number of vehicles. |
|
Nitrogen oxides |
NOX |
Nitrogen monoxide (NO) increases with fuel combustion under high-temperature. It transforms
quickly into Nitrogen dioxide (NO2). The higher NO concentration,
the larger its transformation into NO2. These are considered much
more dangerous than CO since they are mainly emitted by road transport (whose
emission rate exceed 60%) and are much more concentrated in urban areas. |
|
Sulfur dioxide |
SO2 |
Combustion of sulfurous fuels emitted by diesel engines. About 100 000 tonnes of SO2
are released yearly. In Algeria, the dieselisation of means of transport is
progressing further, which means that emissions of this pollutant are clearly
increasing. |
|
Particulate Matters. Dusts |
PM |
Combustion of fuels (especially diesel) by road
transport means, which emit them in the form of fine dust. The more
diesel-powered the automobile fleet, the higher the PM concentrations.
Algeria has opted for the dieselisation of its vehicle fleet since 2002 (34%
in 2015) without, however, taking care of the polluting emissions whose
impacts on public health are delicate. |
|
Volatile
Organic Compounds (Hydrocarbons) |
VOC (HC) |
Evaporation of gasoline and incomplete combustion of
fuel and engine oil. Motor vehicles account for more than 40% of total HC
emissions into the air. In heavily trafficked streets, they are present at
levels reaching tens of thousands of micrograms per m3. |
|
Tropospheric ozone |
O3 |
Reaction of some of the above pollutants under the
effect of solar radiation |
|
Lead compounds |
Pb |
Lead additives contained
in certain gasoline |
Source: synthesised by authors [7, 11, 16, 20, 21,
27, 28, 39]
4.2. Emission rates of road
transport pollutants in Algeria
The contribution of the transport sector to overall GHG emissions
was no more than 20% in the early 1990s. However,
it increased recently to 66% making it the world's leading polluter [20]. In Algeria, this sector remains,
however, the largest GHG emitter since 1971. Its contribution rate to the total
CO2-eq emissions at the national scale has been increasing since
2001 as shown in Figure 5. According to the National Agency for the Promotion and
Rationalisation of Energy Use (APRUE), the direct GHG emissions due to
final energy consumption reached 147 MTCO2-eq in 2020, of which the
contribution of the transport sector is almost 49 MTCO2-eq (33.33%
of the total GHG emissions in Algeria). We observed that the highest
contribution to these emissions is attributed to road transport whereas the
contribution of other modes (rail, maritime, etc.) remains trivial [3]. While
the World Health Organisation (WHO) recommends not to exceed an annual average
of 2.2 tonnes of CO2-eq per capita across all economic sectors
(transport, construction, residential, etc.) [44], emission level per Algerian is
equivalent to 2.26 TCO2 of which 1.15 tons of CO2-eq per
capita are related only to the use of road transport means [3].
Fig. 5. Evolution of CO2-eq emissions in Algeria between 1971 and 2020
(in percentage of the total combustion of fuels)
Source: Designed by authors [45]
Despite the lack of recent
inventories, it is still important to point out that road transport emissions
of other pollutants far exceeded
those of other sectors in 2012 (last inventory made in Algeria). The Ministry of Land Use Planning and the Environment estimated in its second communication to UNFCCC that some pollutants have increased significantly between
1994 and 2012: SO2 (+43%) and CH4 (+39%), while others have increased only slightly: CO (+5.4%), and NMVOCs (+5.3%) [33].
This is logical since 90% of the transportation
of passengers and merchandise is by road means, which consumes almost
exclusively petroleum products [24]. Air pollution related to this sector is
exacerbated by the growth of the automobile fleet and the advanced average of
its age. The prevalence of individual transport (private cars) compared to
public transport (buses) on the roads contributes also to the Peak-hour traffic
congestion and related pollution particularly in urban areas [24]. Furthermore,
the lack of maintenance in combination with the non-existent and
non-functioning pollution control systems accentuate this problem [1, 5, 18]. However, all of these pollutants have very harmful impacts on public
health.
Given that,
by 2025, freight and passenger traffic on land will more than double in Algeria [32], the reduction of GHG emissions inherent to the road transport sector remains a major challenge.
5.
THE ROAD TRANSPORT SECTOR
AND ITS POLLUTANTS:
SERIOUS DAMAGES TO PUBLIC HEALTH
Many research conducted around the world confirms that
pollutants emitted by road transport, particularly in urban areas, cause
multiple dysfunctions and physical disorders and constitute, therefore, a
potential risk for public health. Similarly, the National Action Plan for the
Environment and Sustainable Development (NAPE-SD) has confirmed that the most
significant damages related to air pollution in Algeria affect mainly human
health and quality of life [31]. In 2002, the WHO attributed 1.4% of all premature
deaths worldwide to urban air pollution that comes mainly from the evaporation of
gasoline (unburned hydrocarbons) and exhaust fumes [38]. In 2012, this
pollution was responsible for approximately three million premature deaths
worldwide in both urban and rural areas [44]. Air pollution from road transport
means is responsible for almost 3% of yearly deaths in Switzerland, France and
Austria [7, 16, 17, 25, 38]. This mortality tends to
increase especially among people living near major traffic routes [10, 17]. The
main impacts of each pollutant and the corresponding health risks are
summarised in Table 4.
Pollution peaks due to NOx, HC and the resulting O3
have been correlated with increased respiratory morbidity in France since 1994,
highlighted by a clear increase in hospitalisations, respiratory tract diseases and asthma attacks,
particularly in children [10]. The correlation between the concentrations of
CO, SO2, NOX, O3 and the frequency of heart
disease have been demonstrated in the United Kingdom since 1997 in the
"Occupational and Environmental Medicine Journal". Indeed, 1/5 heart
attacks are due to these pollutants and the increase in the frequency of
related hospitalisation is linked to the increase in their emission rates [7, 19].
The PMs emitted by vehicle
engines are closely responsible for respiratory tract disorders [16]. Depending on their size, these
particles can affect
the upper respiratory tract
(especially the larynx),
as they can be absorbed through the digestive tract and have extra-pulmonary effects [28]. In 2013, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) concluded that these PMs
are closely associated with an increased incidence of various cancers, primarily lung, urinary tract and bladder
cancers [10, 16, 25]. Furthermore,
they can affect the course of pregnancies and the development
of newborns as well as male fertility [44].
Tab. 2
The health risks associated with the various
pollutants emitted by road transport
|
Pollutants |
Health damages |
|
CO |
Respiratory and cardiovascular disorders - Anoxia -
Migraine - Dizziness -Vision disorders |
|
NOX |
Irritation- Respiratory problems- Decreased immune
defences - Impaired lung function- Eye discomfort |
|
SO2 |
Respiratory and cardiovascular disorders - Impaired
lung function - Acid rain (sulfuric acid) |
|
PM10 |
Respiratory and cardiovascular disorders - Cancers |
|
VOC/HC |
Eye irritations - Coughing - Carcinogenic actions
in crowded places |
|
O3 |
Migraine - Eye irritation - Impaired lung function |
|
Pb |
Intoxications- Anaemia - Growth disorders - Renal
insufficiency |
Source:
synthesised by authors [7, 10, 16, 17, 25, 28, 36, 43, 44]
In Algeria, the National Institute of Public Health
(INSP) concluded in 1996 that 25% of the recorded cases of respiratory
morbidity were attributable to urban air pollution, road traffic in particular.
The figures at the time were worrying since the number of vulnerable people
affected by air pollution was close to 136 000 asthmatics, 88 400 persons
having chronic bronchitis and 380 people with lung cancer. As for the mortality
rates, which were consequently high, they amounted to 16.69 deaths per 100 000 people
with chronic bronchitis, 2.74 deaths per 100 000 people with lung cancer and
1.97 deaths per 100 000 people with asthma [31]. The results of the National
Health Survey conducted in 2005 linked the above-mentioned morbidities to road
transport means [38]. The report underlined that chronic pathologies occurred
more in urban areas (with a rate of 15%) rather than in rural areas (11%).
Furthermore, it highlighted respiratory disease provoked by transport
pollutants as responsible for 11.65% of hospitalisations, affecting children
(16.5%) more than adults (11%). The related morbidity rates were high in both
urban (12%) and rural (11%) areas. Thus, cases of rheumatism (which appear
following respiratory tract infections, and subsequently, cause cardiac problems)
were rising sharply, with an average rate equal to 8.15% [19]. To protect
public health according to the WHO recommendation, the Algerian regulation
limited the annual average emission of PMs to 50 μg/m3 [34]. Despite its importance, this
value had been exceeded in many Algerian cities especially Algiers and
Constantine [19, 33, 41]. Consequently, this excess
value is responsible for 4.5% of hospital consultations [19]. Air pollution
from road traffic would be the cause of 80% of respiratory diseases among the
Algerian population in the long term [6 ].
6. THE ROAD TRANSPORT SECTOR: COLOSSAL COSTS FOR THE
ALGERIAN ECONOMY
6.1. Fuel and energy costs
Figure 6 shows the remarkable change in the way fuel
has been used in Algeria since 1996, where gasoline vehicles are slightly
decreasing while those running on diesel are slightly increasing. This can be
explained by the low price of diesel as well as the lifespan of the diesel
engine compared to the gasoline engine [1, 5]. The strong dependence of road
transport on gasoline and diesel makes its share in the imports of this derived
energy remain the largest. The share of these two products in the total
imported derived energy is estimated at 34.41%, with quantities equal to 256
Ktoe and 275 Ktoe, respectively [2, 3]. In other words, out of 1543 Ktoe of
imported derived energy (diesel, bitumen, electricity, etc.) in 2020, the
amount of imported diesel and gasoline is equal to 531 Ktoe whose prices are
exorbitant approaching, therefore, one billion dollars annually [4].
Fig. 6. Evolution of the Algerian automobile
fleet (in %) according to the type of used energy
Source: designed by authors based on the ONS
statistics [37]
Idres and Kaïd Tlilane showed in their study that
the fuel demand curve is proportionally increasing as a function of the
increase in the vehicle fleet in Algeria, with a strong correlation rate equal
to 86% [18]. According to them, the average energy consumption in
Algeria is 0.25 Ktoe per
100 vehicles, compared to 0.10 Ktoe per
100 vehicles in France and Germany and 0.15 Ktoe per 100 vehicles in Norway. This
difference in consumption is explained by the low cost of fuel that encourages
the mobility of motorists. While France, Germany and Norway showed a
significant decline in fuel consumption during the fuel price increases,
especially during the 2007 crisis, Algeria and Egypt did not show the same
[18]. Due to heavy state subsidies, fuel prices were relatively low in the latter
two, whereas they were high in Morocco, France, Germany, and particularly in
Norway and vary according to fluctuations in crude oil prices on the
international market [23]. Moreover, it should be noted that the Norwegian
motorist pays 10 times more expensive his full tank of gasoline and almost 14
times more expensive his full tank of diesel than an Algerian motorist. The
prices are $ 2.27 for gasoline and $ 2.11 for diesel in Norway against $ 0.27 for gasoline
and $ 0.16 for
diesel in Algeria, respectively. Such fiscal and energy rationality implemented
by a rich natural resource exporting country like Norway reflects its
determination to rationalise its expenditures and ensure its economic viability
by investing in sustainable transport. Meanwhile, fuel imports in Algeria will
continue to increase in the coming years because of the constant growth in
daily mobility and the old age of the automobile fleet. In addition, we should
not forget the energy deployed to illuminate road infrastructure, whose night
lighting for public roads consumes 40% of the national electrical energy. The
cost of this lighting amounts to 13 billion DA on the national scale [30].
6.2. Public health and environmental costs
The costs of public health-related damages inherent to
atmospheric pollution are very significant [31].
The economic losses thus incurred would amount to $246 675 067 per year (that
is, 0.52% of GDP), of which the direct cost of respiratory diseases was
estimated at $ 15 000 000 per year [32]. Moreover, the costs of
annual environmental damage in Algeria amounted to 5.5% of GDP, of which 2% is
associated with air pollution and GHG emissions [31, 32, 33].
As air pollution leads to a deterioration of the quality of life, many Algerian
households living in urban areas were predisposed to bear an additional cost to
improve air quality and prevent building degradation (painting, repair, etc.).
Depending on the willingness to pay, this loss of well-being was estimated at
nearly 0.12% of GDP. On the other hand, the economic losses related to the
degradation of natural capital were higher and represented 1.84% of GDP, with
impacts on biodiversity amounting to 0.21% of GDP. While the cost of damages
related to CO2 emissions was estimated at $ 567 807 273 per year,
which represents 1.2% of GDP [32].
6.3.
Replacement costs
The "replacement costs" are related to the
various investments needed to mitigate the costs of damages induced by air
pollution from motorised modes [31]. These costs amounted to $ 62 132 937 per
year, representing 0.17% of GDP. The main investment is represented by the
conversion of 350 000 vehicles to LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) over a period
of 10 years. The annual investment cost of which was estimated at $ 23 887 769
(0.05% of GDP).
7. ALGERIAN POLICIES IN
FAVOUR OF SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT
Since 1993, Algerian efforts to mitigate atmospheric
pollutants and GHG emissions have focused on the:
-
reduction of the quantities of gas burned by torches of the National
Company of Hydrocarbons, Research, Production, Transport, Transformation and
Marketing;
-
reduction of ozone-depleting substances (refrigeration, aerosols, foams,
solvents);
-
dieselisation of the automobile fleet (to reduce CO and CO2
emissions) knowing that Algeria has become an importer of diesel [31]. Meanwhile, this fuel emits more NOx and PM
that have negative consequences, especially on public health.
In 2015, the Ministry of Energy and Mines, through
APRUE, initiated “The development of energy
efficiency programme at horizon 2030”. This programme aimed to promote
Liquefied Petroleum Gas fuel (LPG/c) and Compressed Natural Gas fuel (CNG).
These were the most available and least polluting fuels, representing less than
5% of fuel consumption in Algeria. The generalisation of their use in
individual and collective means of road transport will make it possible, in the
long term, to cover up the deficit in the national fuel market by enriching the
fuel supply structure. Moreover, it
will help to mitigate the health and environmental damages related to the use
of gasoline and diesel, particularly in the most populated urban areas [29]. To get
involved, APRUE similarly set up in 2019 “The National Energy Management
Programme for the transport sector by 2030”. This programme is based
mainly on the conversion of more than 1.1 million vehicles (private cars and
public means of transport) to LPG/c by 2030. Its objectives are mainly: (1) The reduction of fuel imports, which have been increasing in
recent years because of the increase in the number of vehicles. (2) The
substantial reduction of exhaust fumes in cities, and consequently, the
protection of public health. (3) The provision of an affordable and
environment-friendly alternative energy source for road transport means and
users. (4) Job creation through the LPG conversion chain.
To achieve these objectives, this programme benefits
in particular from:
-
technical support from APRUE, notably through the drafting of
specifications relating to the quality of the LPG/c kits as well as the rules
concerning installation, maintenance and after-sales service;
-
support for installers and capacity building;
-
overall monitoring of programme implementation;
-
the design and launch of an awareness campaign to engage potential
beneficiaries.
Complementary measures have been taken by APRUE to
carry out its programme such as:
-
ban on the import of used vehicles since 2005;
-
compulsory vehicle technical inspection for vehicles over 2 years old;
-
mandatory energy audit for transport companies that consume
more than 1000 toe/year.
8.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
By investigating the relationship
between road transport, energy consumption, GHG emissions and the associated
impacts and damages, this study presents a new perspective to the ongoing
debate about sustainable transport in Algeria. Since the liberalisation of the
transport market in 1988, there has been an important increase in the number of
vehicles as well as the consumption of fuels. These very crucial increases have
stressed the resources, posing a major threat to the atmosphere and the
environment both locally and globally. The road transport sector's heavy
dependence on non-renewable energy sources confronts it with multiple economic
challenges related to excessive consumption of fossil fuels, exorbitant costs
resulting from environmental and human damages, etc. Hence, to achieve the
ecological transition set out since the Rio Conference, the energy transition
in this sector has proved to be of paramount importance, especially in recent
years in Algeria. However, ignoring the strong relationship between the issue
of sustainability, road transport and energy transition shows the limits of
what should be a systemic approach towards sustainable transportation [14, 23].
The implementation of the conditions
related to transportation within the framework of preserving the environment
and promoting the national economy requires the road transport sector to reduce
amply its GHG emissions. This objective raises the urgency to accelerate the
energy transition within this sector, which constitutes both the main polluter
and energy consumer on a national scale. This transition should not be based
solely on the generalisation of LPG and CNG as undertaken by the
Algerian policy makers but must include other environment-friendly sources of
energy. In other words, encouraging the use of LPG and CNG as alternative fuels
is a good initiative to be implemented to reduce the air pollution and GHG
emissions emanating from road transport. However, no single measure is
sufficient on its own; to overcome this rigorous problem, different solutions
from several fields must be combined and implemented together.
Solar, wind and water are all
renewable sources capable of producing as much energy to run our means of
transport and meet daily needs, especially in terms of daily commuting. As
proof, many cities around the world have excelled in making new environment-friendly
road transport means that depend solely on renewable energy sources such as
electric cars, electrically assisted bicycles, solar-powered tricycles, etc.
Algeria's energy policy must therefore be articulated with fuel price policy as well as road infrastructure
policy. This is very crucial as the growth model currently advocated in Algeria generates more costs
than benefits in the transport sector. Finally, the sustainability of transport
policy in Algeria can only be achieved at some expense such as:
-
the raise of vehicle costs, which can, however, be offset by the low
costs of LPG and CNG,
-
the establishment of a network to measure air pollution periodically,
-
make inventories of GHG emissions accessible for public,
-
the serious technical control of emissions especially from private cars.
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Received 11.04.2021; accepted in revised form 10.06.2021
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